Media Planning Essay Example

Media Planning Essay â€Å"Whoever controls the media controls the culture. † – ALLEN GINSBERG, POET â€Å"Information is the oxygen of the modern age. † – RONALD REAGAN, US PRESIDENT Media Today â€Å"Your TV is ringing. † Maybe you saw the Verizon ad that shows a cellphone with a TV attached to it—pointing out that you can talk on the phone and watch TV at the same time, on one piece of equipment. If you saw it, you might have said, â€Å"cool,† or â€Å"I want that,† or â€Å"what a ridiculous thing to do. † But Verizon could have gone further. The ad could have pointed out that some of the company’s cellphones also let you watch movies, play video games, download and listen to music, and read a newspaper or magazine. It’s an exciting time to study mass communication. None of the activities described above could have been attempted on a cellphone (call it a mobile device) just a few years ago. They raise questions about the impact that these and other technologies will have on us, our society, and the content of TV, movies, video games, music, newspapers, magazines, and movie companies. In fact, the transformations are so great that you have the opportunity to know more than conventional experts, to challenge traditional thinking, and to encourage fresh public discussions about media and society. Consider the mass media menu that Americans have today. Instead of three or four TV channels, most Americans receive more than fifty and a substantial number receive one hundred and fifty and more. Radio in urban areas delivers dozens of stations; satellite radio brings in hundreds more, and music streaming on the Web—sometimes called Internet radio—is carried out by countless broadcast and non-broadcast entities. We will write a custom essay sample on Media Planning specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Media Planning specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Media Planning specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The advent of home computers, VCRs, CD players, DVDs, and DBS has brought far more channels of sights and sounds into people’s lives than ever before. So has the Internet and the World Wide Web, the computer network that Americans use to interact with information, news and entertainment from all over the nation and the world. Research indicates that Americans typically spend an enormous amount of time with mass media. 1 Think about your own media habits. How close do you come to the average 32 hours a week (about 4. hours a day) of television that Americans view on the traditional TV set as well as online? What about radio? Studies suggest that Americans listen to around 15 hours a week of radio in the regular broadcast mode, via satellite channels or from their online feeds. Do you do that, or do you instead listen to recorded music on your iPod or on your MP3 or CD player? Studies show that Americans spend an average of about 3. 5 hours a week with recorded music, but colleg e students undoubtedly do more of it. And what about your time reading books, newspapers and magazines? Data show that on average Americans spend about 8 hours a week with one or another of these, both their printed versions and their websites. Just a few years ago, media such as television, radio, books and newspapers seemed pretty separate. It was clear what content from each medium looked or sounded like, and it would have been foolish to suggest that newspaper articles and television programs would show up on the same channel. Today, with the rise of new computer technologies that we will explain in the coming pages, this â€Å"foolishness† is exactly what has happened. The access people have on the Internet to content from different types of media is part of a process called convergence. Convergence takes place when content that has traditionally been confined to one medium appears on multiple media channels. The media of mass communication, then, are an integral part of our lives, occurring in a wide variety of settings. In this chapter, we will explore and define communication, media, and culture, and we will consider how the relationships among them affect us and the world in which we live. We will also consider why the term mass communication remains relevant in the twenty-first century, contrary to what some writers say. In fact, the changes taking place in the media system actually make a rethought and redefined version of the term more important than ever. U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A Varieties of Communication onvergence when content that has traditionally been confined to one medium appears on multiple media channels audience fragmentation the process of dividing audience members into segments based on background and lifestyle in order to send them messages targeted to their specific characteristics mass production process the industrial process that creates the potential for reaching millions, even billions, of diverse, anonymous people at around the same time industrial nature what distinguishes mass communication from other forms of communication is the industrialized—or mass production—process that is involved in creating the message material. This industrial process creates the potential for reaching billions of diverse, anonymous people simultaneously. The traditional notion of the audience as a large mass of anonymous individuals has given way beneath the fragmenting of audiences to reveal smaller, specially targeted media audiences made up of individuals who are segmented by any number of characteristics. To understand why some writers suggest that the term mass communication doesn’t connect to what’s going on in today’s world, we have to look at how the term has traditionally been used. Over the past one hundred years, people who wrote about mass communication tended to relate it to the size of the audience. That made a lot of sense back then. From the mid-nineteenth century onward, new technologies such as high-speed newspaper presses, radio, movies, and television provided access to the huge â€Å"masses† of people. Not only were those audiences very large, they were dispersed geographically, quite diverse (that is, made up of different types of people), and typically anonymous to the companies that created the material. The essential reason newspapers, radio, television, and other such media were considered different from other means of communication had to do with the size and composition of the audience. This perspective on mass communication worked very well until the past couple of decades when the key aspects of the traditional definition of mass communication as reaching huge, diverse groups no longer fit. The reason is that the arrival of media channels—including the growing number of radio and TV stations, the rise of the VCR, the multiplication of cable networks, and the rise of the Web— led to audience fragmentation (see Figure 1. 1). That is, as people watched or read these new channels, there were fewer people using any one of them. Because these new media channels do not necessarily individually reach large numbers of people—the â€Å"masses†Ã¢â‚¬â€some writers suggested that we can abandon the term mass communication. However, the view in this book is that mass communication is still a critically important part of society. In our view, what really separates mass communication from other forms of communication is not the size of the audience—it can be large or small. Rather, what makes mass communication special is the way the content of the communication message is created. Mass communication is carried out by organizations working together in industries to produce and circulate a wide range of content—from entertainment to news to educational materials. It is this industrial, mass production process that creates the potential for reaching millions, even billions, of diverse, anonymous people at around the same time (say, through televising the Olympic games). And it is the industrial nature of the process—for example, the various companies that work together within the television or Internet industries—that makes mass communication different from other forms of communication even when 6 U N D E R S T A N D I N G M A S S M E D I A Figure 1. 1 Audience Fragmentation The arrival of the diverse Media channel A array of media channels has had a fragmenting effect on audiences—as audience members move to watch, read, or listen to a new channel, fewer people use any single channel. Media channel B Media channel E Media channel C Media channel F Media channel D C Media channel G C the audience is relatively small and even one-to-one. To help you understand how mass communication relates to other forms of communication, let’s take a closer look. Communication Defined Different types of communication are a basic feature of human life. In general, the word communication refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties involved understands as messages. What are messages? Messages are collections of symbols that appear purposefully organized (meaningful) to those sending or receiving them. Think about the many ways that you signal to others what you want to do or how much you care about them. The signals are often verbal but they can also be through body language. When Jane shouts excitedly to her friend Jack and leaps with joy into his arms after she wins a tennis match, that’s a form of communication. It’s likely that Jack, whose arms she almost broke, realizes that she wants to tell him something. People who study communication would typically call the interaction just described interpersonal communication, a form that involves two or three individuals signaling to each other using their voices, facial and hand gestures, and other signs (even clothes) that they use to convey meaning. When you talk to your parents about your coursework, discuss a recent movie over dinner with friends, or converse with your professor during her office hours, you are participating in the interpersonal form of communication. ommunication refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties involved understands as messages messages collections of symbols that appear purposefully organized (meaningful) to those sending or receiving them interpersonal communication a form of communication that involves two or three individuals signaling to each other using their voices, facial, and hand gestures, and other signs (even clothes) that they use to convey meaning 7 U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A Mediated Interpersonal Communication Breakdown When tragedy strikes, it is not unusual for people to lose their sense of security in the world—at least temporarily. Yet large-scale crises may also prompt people to lose faith in the communication systems that they have come to depend on for information. During the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, many media channels were inaccessible. Phone lines were jammed for hours, and some local radio and television stations were knocked off the air. In addition, a number of websites crashed while others failed to provide information about the attacks, leading one reporter to declare that â€Å"the Internet failed miserably. † In 2007 during the shooting rampage at Virginia Tech, dis, cussions resurfaced about communication during crises. This time, however, the focus was not on the technology but on the way people were using it, particularly new media formats such as mobile devices, blogs, and social networking sites. C U L T U R E T O D A Y As the attacks unfolded, many students used their Facebook and MySpace pages to let family and friends know they were okay. In fact, science reporter Alan Boyle remarked that â€Å"the media methods employed during [the] crisis broke new ground—and undoubtedly saved lives in the process. Others, meanwhile, questioned why Virginia Tech authorities did not take advantage of communication technologies to immediately alert members of the campus community that they were in danger. Andrew Kantor, a technology reporter for USA Today, saw this event and its aftermath as evidence that people have yet to adapt fully to new types of communication. Sources: Alan Boyle, â€Å"How Smart Mobs Coped with a Massacre, † MSNBC, accessed on 6/11/07, http://www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/18184075/; Andrew Kantor, â€Å"Virginia Tech Tragedy Highlights Differences between Old, New Media, USA Today, accessed on † 6/11/07, www. usatoday. com; Jen Muehlbauer, â€Å"Reporting the Unthinkable, The Industry Standard’s Media Grok, accessed on † 9/12/01, http://www. nettime. rg/Lists-Archives/nettime-bold-0109/ msg00273. html. mediated interpersonal communication a specialized type of interpersonal communication that is assisted by a device, such as a pen or pencil, a computer, or a telephone intrapersonal communication an individual â€Å"talking† to himself or herself small group communication communication among three or more individuals organizational communication the interactions of individuals in a formal working environment Mediated interpersonal communication, which is a specialized type of interpersonal communication, can be described as interpersonal communication that is assisted by a device, such as a pen, a computer, or a telephone. When you write a thank you note to your grandmother, send an email to your graduate teaching assistant, or call a friend on the phone, you are participating in the mediated form of interpersonal communication. In this form of communication, the people you are interacting with can’t touch you and you can’t touch them. You might even be thousands of miles from each other. The technology—the pen and paper, the computer, the telephone—becomes the vehicle (the medium) that allows you to interact with them. Communication scholars also differentiate among other forms of communication. Some write about intrapersonal communication, which involves an individual â€Å"talking† to himself or herself—for example, an internal â€Å"conversation† that weighs the pros and cons of a decision. Other researchers write about small group communication, organizational communication, or public communication. Small group communication involves communication among three or more individuals. Think of the deliberations of five friends who get together to plan a ski trip. Organizational communication involves the interaction of individuals in a formal working environment. When an executive sends messages down the chain of command, this is a form of orga- 8 U N D E R S T A N D I N G M A S S M E D I A nizational communication. Public communication involves one person who speaks to a large number of people—for instance, a professor speaking to students, or a candidate for public office talking to a crowd at a rally. Note that hese forms of communication can each take place interpersonally or they can be mediated. A group planning a ski group can meet face-to-face or can interact through email. The boss could talk to her department heads in her office, or leave a message on their phone mail system. A professor can talk in front of the class, or leave a video of himself or herself for the students to watch. While the types of communication described above have their differences, they have a central similarity: they involve messages. Seven major elements are involved in every interaction that involves messages. These elements are the source, encoder, transmitter, channel, decoder, receiver, and feedback. Let’s take them one at a time. In communication, the source is the originator of a message. public communication one person who speaks to a large number of people Source The source is the originator of the message. The source may be a person (when Jane speaks to Jack), or several people (a choir singing). But the source can also be an organization. For example, suppose you receive a notice in your mailbox from your bank. While individuals who work there created and sent the notice, from your standpoint, â€Å"the bank† was the source of the message. The source may or may not have knowledge about the intended receiver of the message, but it does have a thought or idea to transmit to some other person or organization. Encoding Encoding is the process by which the source translates the thoughts and ideas so that they can be perceived by the human senses—these are primarily sight and sound, but may also include smell, taste, and touch. A source creates or encodes a message in anticipation of its transmission to a receiver. When the source is an individual, the encoding goes on in the individual’s brain. When the source is an organization, encoding takes place when people in the organization create messages. Transmitting The transmitter performs the physical activity of actually sending out the message. Picture an employee apologizing to a supervisor for taking an unauthorized day off from work. The employee’s vocal cords and face muscles— in fact, his entire body—will be involved in the transmission of the words, tone, and physical movements that the supervisor standing in front of him will understand as meaningful. Now, picture this same employee apologizing to his supervisor, not in person, but over the phone. In this case, a second type of transmitter operates along with the vocal cords. That second transmitter is the telephone, which turns sound waves from the vocal cords into electrical impulses that can travel across the phone lines. The telephone is an example of a mediating technology, or medium, of communication. A medium is part of a technical system that helps in the transmission, ource the originator of the message which may be a person, several people or an organization encoding the process by which the source translates the thoughts and ideas so that they can be perceived by the human senses— primarily sight and sound, but may also include smell, taste, and touch transmitter performs the physical activity of distributing the message medium part of a technical system that helps in the transmission, distribution, or reception of messages 9 U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A 1 The source encodes a message using the brain and transmits it through the air waves (a medium) using parts of the body (vocal cords, facial muscles). 2 The receiver hears the source’s voice, decodes the message using the senses, and prepares to encode an answer. This process of responding is called interpersonal feedback. The message travels through the air (the channel ) to reach the other person (the receiver ). 6 The former source is now the receiver. The receiver decodes the message and prepares to encode an answer (more interpersonal feedback ). In this way the interpersonal communication episode continues. 5 4 The receiver encodes a response using the brain and transmits it (the feedback) using pa rts of the body. When transmitting, the receiver becomes a source. The message travels through the air (the channel ) to reach the other person. Figure 1. 2 A Model of Interpersonal Communication In this model of interpersonal communication, information moves from a starting point at the source, through the transmitter, via the channel, to the receiver for decoding. channels the pathways through which the transmitter sends all features of the message, whether they involve sight, sound, smell, or touch distribution, or reception of messages. It helps communication take place when senders and receivers are not face-to-face. The Internet is an example of a medium, as are the radio, CD, television, and DVD. (Note that the term medium is singular; it refers to one technological vehicle for communication. The plural is media. ) Channel All communication, whether mediated or not, takes place through channels. Channels are the pathways through which the transmitter sends all features of the message, whether they involve sight, sound, smell, or touch. When a man on the street walks up to you and shouts at you in a way that you can hardly understand, the channel is the air through which the sound waves move from the man’s vocal cords. If your roommate yells at you through the phone, two channels are at work: one channel is the air that vibrates the phone mechanism, and the other is the wire through which the electrical impulses move toward you. Decoding Before a receiver can hear (and make sense of) a source’s message, the transmitted impulses must be converted to signs that the brain can perceive as meaningful. Decoding is the way in which this is done. It is the reverse of the encoding process—it is the process by which the receiver translates the source’s thoughts and ideas so that they have meaning. In the case of the interpersonal communication, the decoder is biological: the brain is the decoder. When the telephone is involved, the electrical impulses that traveled through the phone lines must be decoded into sound waves before they can be decoded by the brain. In fact, all media require this sort of decoding. When you play music on an MP3 player or iPod, it decodes the impulses that have been laid down on the disk so that you can hear the tunes. Similarly, the television is the decoding the process by which the receiver translates the source’s thoughts and ideas so that they have meaning 10 U N D E R S T A N D I N G M A S S M E D I A The source (a person) encodes a message using the brain and transmits it through the telephone (a medium) using parts of the body (vocal cords, facial muscles). The phone enco des the message as electrical signals. 2 The message travels through the air, phone, and phone lines (the media channels) to reach the other person (the receiver). 3 The phone (a receiver medium) rings. A human receiver (a person) answers the phone. The phone decodes the electrical transmission into sound, and the human receiver decodes the human source’s message using the senses and prepares to encode an answer. This process of responding is called interpersonal feedback. 6 The former source is now the receiver. The receiver (a person) decodes the message and prepares to encode an answer (more interpersonal feedback). In this way the mediated interpersonal communication episode continues. 5 4 The receiver (a person) encodes a response using the brain and transmits it (the feedback) using parts of the body and the phone. When transmitting, the receiver becomes a source. The message travels through the air, phone, and phone lines (the media channels) to reach the other person. Figure 1. 3 decoder that takes the electrical impulses from the air or cable and converts them into the programs you watch. A Model of Mediated Interpersonal Communication In this model of mediated interpersonal communication, information moves from a starting point to a source, who encodes a message. The message is transmitted through channels to the receiver, who decodes the message. receiver the person or organization that gets the message feedback when the receiver responds to the message with what the sender perceives as a message Receiver As suggested above, the receiver is the person or organization that gets the message. Sometimes the source’s message will reach its intended receiver; sometimes it reaches another receiver altogether. But even if someone other than the intended receiver receives the message, communication has still taken place. Say, for example, that you assume that your friend Brad is in the next room and, as a result, you shout your opinion about his new girlfriend, Keiko. Even if it turns out that Brad wasn’t in the next room at all and did not hear (receive) the message you sent him, but instead his girlfriend, Keiko, was in the next room, the episode can still be considered interpersonal communication: your message was encoded, transmitted via your vocal cords, sent through the channel of the air, decoded by the receiver (although not the one you intended), and received. Feedback Feedback occurs when the receiver responds to the message with what the sender perceives as a message. When Keiko, your friend’s girlfriend, tells you, â€Å"I never knew you felt that way about me, you jerk,† that is feedback. In fact, this sort of feedback continues the interpersonal communication process. As Figure 1. shows, two people continue their communication by continually receiving and responding to each other’s messages. The same thing happens with mediated interpersonal communication, as shown in Figure 1. 3. The communication â€Å" episode† 11 U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A between the two ends when one of them sends no more feedback to the other (the person walks away, the parties hang up the phone). Feedback doesn’t always take place immediately, especially in mediated interpersonal communication. Say you send your friend an email. Keiko reads it, gets embarrassed by something you wrote and decides to write you a reply. You read the note and then, after thinking about it for a day, write back directly to her. Her email and your response are examples of delayed feedback. noise is an environmental, mechanical, and semantic sound in the communication situation that interferes with the delivery of the message. Environmental noise comes from the setting where the source and receiver are communicating. Mechanical noise comes from the medium through which the communication is taking place. Semantic noise involves language that one or more of the participants doesn’t understand. Noise Noise is an environmental, mechanical, and semantic sound in the communication situation that interferes with the delivery of the message. Environmental noise comes from the setting where the source and receiver are communicating. In an interpersonal communication situation, Ahmed, the source, may be at a cricket match trying to talk on the phone, and Sally, the receiver, might be at an auction where people are screaming bids. Mechanical noise comes from the medium through which the communication is taking place. Say there is static on the phone—that would be mechanical noise that would add to the environmental noise. Semantic noise involves language that one or more of the participants doesn’t understand. Let’s say Ahmed tells Sally that â€Å"the bowler attempted a bouncer that turned into a beamer. † Even when Ahmed repeats the words three times through the environmental and mechanical noise so that she hears them, Sally has no idea what Ahmed is talking about, since she knows little about the sport of cricket. From Communication to Mass Communication One way to understand mass communication is to show its similarities to and differences from other forms of communication. One similarity is that mass communication takes place through media. Small groups can come together in virtual chat rooms that are connected by wired networks, organizations can connect their far-flung employees via video conference facilities that are linked through cables and satellites, and professors who deliver public lectures can record them for projection from a computer server to different classes at different times. In other words, the channels used in mediated forms of interpersonal, group, organizational and public communication are sometimes similar to those used in mass communication. Yet another similarity between these other forms of communication and mass communication is that we can describe mass communication using the same terms of source, encoder, transmitter, channel, decoder, receiver, feedback, and noise that are shown in Table 1. 1. But here is also where we begin to see differences. The most important differences relate to the source of the message, its transmitter and the way feedback takes place. Differences in the Source In the other forms of communication we’ve discussed, individuals are the source of the message that scholars study. In mass communication, by contrast, complex organizations, often companies, take responsibility for the activity. The source is an organization such as a company, not a single person. To get a strong grasp of the difference, think of Jon Stewart delivering his version of the news on Comedy Central’s The Daily Show. If Jon were in the same room as you telling you about what he just read in the paper, that would be a clear case of interpersonal communication and Stewart would be a source. If your friend were to record that conversation on his video camera and his brother were to watch 12 U N D E R S T A N D I N G M A S S M E D I A Ta b l e 1 . 1 Differences in Types of Communication Interpersonal Communication Message Source Encoding Uses all the senses An individual By an individual’s brain Mediated Interpersonal Communication Typically verbal and/or visual An individual By an individual’s brain and technology The air, technology A few or many individuals in the same location By technology and an individual’s brain Immediate or delayed; generally direct Mass Communication Typically verbal and/or visual One or more organizations By an organization and technology The air, technology Typically, many people in different locations By technology and an individual’s brain Immediate or delayed; generally indirect Environmental, mechanical, and semantic, sometimes caused by organizations Channel Receiver The air A few individuals in the same location By an individual’s brain Decoding Feedback Immediate and direct Noise Environmental, mechanical, and semantic Environmental, mechanical, and semantic, with environmental sometimes caused by organizations the video of Jon talking about the news, that is an example of mediated interpersonal communication where Jon is still the source. The difference between these two examples of the source and Jon’s appearance on The Daily Show is that behind Stewart is an organization that is creating the news satire for him to present. Sure, Jon is reading the messages, and so it may seem that he should be called â€Å"the source. † But employees of The Daily Show helped him write his script, produced and edited the videos he introduces, and prepared his set for the broadcast. Moreover, the photos and clips he satirizes sometimes come from news firms, such as ABC News. So Jon is really just the most visible representative of an organizational source. Differences in Transmission The critical role of organizations in mass communication compared to other communication forms also shows up in the transmission of the message. In interpersonal, small group, and public communication, an individual sender or a committee takes responsibility for transmittingthe message—perhaps using microphones when speaking to a crowd or telephones when speaking at a distance. In mass communication, however, transmission is too complex to be accomplished by an indi- Mediated forms of interpersonal, group, organizational, and public communication may use channels similar to those used in mass communication. 13 U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A Jon Stewart, host of The Daily Show, isn’t a oneman band. It takes the entire Comedy Central organization—writers, producers, engineers, stage managers, sound technicians, camera people (to name a few)—to create each evening’s program. Stewart is the most visible representative of the organizational source that creates The Daily Show. vidual or even a few people. That is because transmission involves distributing the material to several locations and presenting the material (that is, exhibiting it) at those locations. Instead of a few individuals, a number of organizations (usually large ones) are typically involved in the process. Think of our Daily Show example again. When Jon reads the script on The Daily Show, his vocal cords transmit the words into a microphone; the air and electric current ar

Solid protein formulation Essay Example

Solid protein formulation Essay Example Solid protein formulation Essay Solid protein formulation Essay Introduction for solid protein preparation ( Essay title 5 ) Background: Solid protein preparation has ever been a challenge due to the deficiency of physical, chemical stablenesss and besides complications involved during protein fabrication and purification. To accomplish an acceptable shelf life, they are normally formulated into a solid signifier. Methods available include freeze drying, spray drying and supercritical fluid drying. However, freezing prohibitionist ( freeze-drying ) is the most normally used method. It can be dated back to 1890s where it was foremost tested and used in Leipzig, Germany ( Franks F A ; Auffret T, 2007 ) . However, it was merely until the fiftiess that freeze-drying had been used in the nutrient and drug industry. Lyophilisation offers several advantages, being an sterile procedure that had been approved by the governments which enhances the shelf life of the merchandise significantly and allows rapid reconstitution of the concluding merchandise prior to utilize ( McNally E.J, 2007 ) . Freeze-drying procedure: Chiefly, freeze-drying involves the remotion of H2O molecules from proteins. Stability was achieved by restricting the motion of protein molecules and avoiding debasement tracts that were facilitated by H2O molecules. Procedure can be separated to three chief stairss, viz. , stop deading, primary drying and secondary drying. During freeze, temperature of protein solution was lowered until below the eutectic temperature ( Teut ) . This temperature by definition was the temperature in a mixture where solution and substance pure solids co-exist at fixed force per unit area. With increasing ice formation, concentration of unfrozen protein solution additions consequently until staying solution becomes excessively syrupy that it finally turns into an formless solid solution resembling a glass. This temperature where preparation vitrifies is known as glass passage temperature ( Tg ) . This glassy web has mechanical stableness which allows it to self-support and does non disintegrate upon the remotion of ice, go forthing behind a porous web that is easy rehydrated. Approximately 98 % of the H2O content was isolated in the signifier of ice ( Franks F A ; Auffret T, 2007 ) . Subsequently, primary drying was preformed to take the ice via sublimation. This was achieved by providing heat to the matrix and procedure relies on the rate of sublimation of ice to chill down the formed merchandise. Conversely with repeated drying, a bed of dried bar signifiers above the ice forepart, offering opposition against sublimation. Rate of sublimation lessenings as a effect. Therefore at this point, if process uses a temperature higher than Tg so changes need to be done to avoid the prostration of matrix construction ( Franks F A ; Auffret T, 2007 ; McNally E.J, 2007 ) . It is necessary to appreciate the opposition by dried bed and stairss must be taken to keep merchandise temperature below Tg ( McNally E.J, 2007 ) . Upon completion, secondary drying was performed to extinguish staying unfrozen H2O within the protein. Removal is done via desorption at a low force per unit area value. As H2O content diminutions, there s an addition in merchandise Tg intending Tg of the merchandise was somewhat higher than Tg initial towards the terminal of the drying procedure. This allows an addition in merchandise temperature for farther desorption. By equilibrating the addition in temperature with rate of drying, desorption of staying H2O without well transcending Tg of merchandise can be achieved. Equally long as the rate of temperature slope does non transcend 5 Â °C/hour, jobs seldom emerge ( McNally E.J, 2007 ) . However, freeze-drying is recognised as an expensive process due to its tremendous energy ingestion and long processing clip ( up to few yearss ) . Hence, economical considerations are of import when sing procedure optimization. This normally means supplying a complete processing rhythm utilizing least sum of clip stoping with an terminal merchandise of acceptable quality. Optimization of freeze-drying procedure Problems were normally encountered during primary drying. Key variables to be monitored were sublimation interface temperature ( turning away of macroscopic construction prostration ) and sublimating interface place ( rating of primary drying advancement ) . These parametric quantities can be determined by both attacks mentioned below. Dynamic Parameters Estimation is an advanced manometric temperature measuring capable of set uping optimum shelf temperature and license quickest drying clip without transcending Tg of merchandise. But it merely provides stray informations ( no uninterrupted measurings ) as an mean appraisal of the province of the system ( Barresia A.A, 2009a ; 2009b ) . Furthermore surveies demonstrates that they must be interpreted with attention when important heterogeneousnesss were present within the batch ( Barresia A.A, 2009a ) . These can be overcome by matching the system with package detectors like Extended Kalman Filter ( EKF ) based perceivers EFK perceivers on the other manus, were able to set up temperature of the merchandise at any axial place and sublimating interface patterned advance, by working a single-point mensural temperature at the underside of the merchandise. It allows uninterrupted monitoring of phials placed at different places which give a direct in-line rating of batch differences. The documentation between appraisal and existent values were by and large good, except during the first portion of drying rhythm. It has been observed that the public presentation of the perceiver can be improved if it is coupled with the DPE tool ( Barresia A.A, 2009b ) . Hence, the two complementary supervising systems can be combined to obtain a robust loanblend control system. Problem in perscpective: Stresses experienced by the protein during freeze-drying However, freeze-drying is non without restrictions. In order for the merchandise to function its intent, proteins would necessitate to remain in its native province to recover its map upon rehydration. However, the procedure itself is capable of bring forthing emphasiss that would take to stop merchandise failure. These emphasiss could be subdivided into three types which are low temperature emphasis, stop deading emphasis and drying emphasis. Low temperature emphasis causes increased hydration of non polar groups and weakening of protein solvophobic interaction. Following hydration, polypeptide ironss which were compactly arranged unfolds to expose internal non-polar groups to H2O. This procedure was enthalphy driven and may explicate some denaturation theoretical account of proteins although the dynamicss may be excessively slow to unfold proteins during freeze-drying ( Privalov PL,1990 ) Cold denatured proteins illustrations were b-lactoglobulin, myoglobin and phosphoglycerate kinase ( Tang XL A ; Pikal M.J, 2005 ) . Then, stop deading procedure itself produces several stableness jobs. First, with increasing solution concentration ionic strength within atoms additions ( Bhatnagarhttp: //informahealthcare.com/entityImage/ ? code=200B? B.S, 2007 ) . This was observed in aluminum hydrated oxide adjuvant incorporating vaccinums where atoms were so tightly packed that ionic strength dominates and collection commences ( Zapata M.I, 1984 ) . Second, surface assimilation of proteins to the ice-water interface formed during stop deading leads to the flowering of native construction. This subsequently exposes amino groups that farther facilitate inactivation via protein collection ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Rapid chilling rhythms generate larger ice H2O interface due to formation of little crystals ( Maltesen M.J, van de Weert M, 2008 ) . It was observed in fibroblast growing factors and maleate dehydragenase. Freezing besides causes pH changes by selectively clear one of the buffering species within protein solut ion. Perturbation occurs owing to increased electrostatic repulsive force between two similar charged groups at high or low pH values ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Pikal et al studies of notably more inactivation and secondary structural disturbance of b-galactosidase in Na phosphate ( NaP ) buffer than in K phosphate buffer. Effect was attributed by pH displacements of about 3 units during stop deading procedure with NaP buffer ( Maltesen M.J, van de Weert M, 2008 ; Pikal-Cleland K.A, 2000 ) . Last, stage separation besides occurs due to altered solubility of excipients at low temperatures. The procedure could give rise to different Tg values as seen with whey proteins and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose co-dried mixtures which exhibits two Tg values in to the full phase-separated system, one Tg value for non-phase-separated co-dried mixture and three Tg values for in between systems ( Jara F.L, Pilosof A.M.R, 2009 ; Randolph TW, 1997 ) . Drying emphasis was caused by partial riddance of the hydration shell which covers the protein surface ensuing in H bonds which played an of import function in the thermodynamic stableness of proteins being removed ( Chang LQ A ; Pikal M.J, 2009 ; Wang W, 2000 ) . During the remotion of H2O molecules, proteins tend to reassign protons to ionized carboxyl groups and abolish as many charge as possible. Equilibrium energies within native verifications were disrupted and favours denaturation. Reduced charge denseness besides promotes protein-protein hydrophobic interaction doing non covalent collection ( Chang LQ, Pikal M.J, 2009 ) . In add-on, H2O molecules may besides function as an indispensable portion of protein active site and remotion of these molecules leads to protein inactivation as seen in muramidases. ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Since, stop deading and desiccation induces different signifiers of emphasis to do protein denaturation. Stabilizers were necessary to protect proteins from stop deading ( cryoprotection ) and desiccation ( lyoprotection ) stresses. However, effectual cryoprotectants may non move as good lyoprotectants hence add-on of two or more stabilizers are necessary in some instances. Dicuss of assorted attacks that might be taken to work out the job Addition of stabilizers: Discriminatory exclusion was proposed as the mechanism for cryoprotection. In the presence of a stabilising agent, protein favors interaction with H2O and excludes stabilizers from its sphere. The exclusion leads to a rise in protein chemical potency and consequence was relative to protein molecule surface country. Subsequently, the system minimises thermodynamically unfavorable consequence of discriminatory exclusion by favoring protein verification with the least surface country. Therefore, native province of proteins was conserved. This consequence besides applies during non-denaturating conditions as proteins constructions do non be in a distinct signifier and fluctuation from most compact verification tends to go on ( Timasheff, S.N. , 1993 ) . Two hypotheses have been proposed as the mechanism for lyoprotection. Water permutation hypothesis was based on thermodynamic stabilisation mechanism. Water-hydrogen bonds are critical in keeping thermodynamic stableness of proteins and stabilizers were able to organize similar H bonds on protein surfaces. Therefore, this acts as a replacement to the H interaction that was lost upon H2O remotion during drying. Therefore, this causes an equilibrium displacement of protein verifications towards the more stable unfolded province. Glass dynamic hypothesis was based strictly on kinetic stabilisation mechanism and scattering of proteins in a stiff, inert formless glassy solid was defined as stableness. Stabilizers acts as inert, good glass formers which provides the stiff matrix and couples the gesture of proteins with matrix construction. Subsequently, thermodynamically goaded debasement was of no concern because the system itself prevents the equilibrium displacement of protein construct ions ( Chang LQ, Pikal M.J, 2009 ) . Further surveies demonstrate that degree of stabilization offered was concentration dependant. Excipients with a concentration sufficient to organize a monolayer around the protein were the least necessary to achieve maximal stabilisation. Therefore, it depends on the mass ratio of excipient to targeted proteins. Further addition in mass ratio provides small benefit in offering excess protection ( YH Liao, 2002 ) . Sugars/polyols are effectual cryoprotectants and lyoprotectants. A concentration of 0.3M was suggested to be the minimal concentration needed to supply stabilisation consequence. This corroborates with consequences obtained from freezed coney musculus lactate dehydrogenase and phopofructokinase. However with increasing concentration, it can really clear and do protein denaturation. Later it was found that disaccharides appeared to be the most effectual among this group of stabilizers ( Carpenter J.F, 1997 ) . However, non all proteins can be stabilised by sugar/polyols. For illustration saccharose had limited consequence in forestalling collection of recombinant hemoglobin in phosphate buffered saline ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Polymers can besides move as both cryoprotectants and lyoprotectants. Mode of action may be due to one or more of the undermentioned belongingss: elevates merchandise Tg value, inhibits crystallization of little bracing agents and increases solution viscousness taking to restricted protein motion ( Wang W, 2000 ) . However, there are restrictions. Polymers might arouse phase separation during stop deading every bit observed on recombinant hemoglobin in phosphate buffer solution incorporating PEG 3350, dextran T500 and NaCl ( Heller, M.C, 1999 ) . In add-on, it may do protein destabilization owing to steric hinderance which limits efficient H adhering with protein as observed in dextran ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Wetting agents on the other manus Acts of the Apostless as a cryoprotectant. It lowers the surface tenseness of protein solution ensuing in decreased inclination of protein surface assimilation. Thus collection leaning declines. It was besides proposed that bracing consequence may besides be attributed by helping protein refolding and binding which hinders proteins of wetting agents offering cryoprotection includes Tween 80 and polyoxyethylene lauryl quintessence ( Wang W, 2000 ) . However, wetting agents were less effectual in protecting against thermally induced denaturation and at higher concentrations of wetting agents may destabilise a supermolecule ( Parkins D.A A ; Lashmar U.T, 2000 ) . As a drumhead, different group of stabilizers offers protection via different mechanism. However, none of them were without restrictions. Considerations need to be done in taking the most appropriate 1s for the preparation. Addition of bulking agents: Bulking agents were used to accomplish physical stableness and to supply a organic structure to keep the active ingredients as active ingredient of a preparation was ever of a really little measure. These were normally used when the active concentration in the fill solution was less than 2 % weight ( McNally E.J, 2007 ) Some illustrations of bulking agents were Osmitrols and dextran. Normally crystalline agents ( Osmitrol ) were preferred because stronger dried bars with better disintegration features were formed when compared to formless agents. As mentioned antecedently, merchandise temperature must be kept below merchandises eutectic temperature and any incorrect appraisal consequences in either structural prostration or prolonged processing clip. High merchandise Tg value was hence favorable as it allows the procedure continuance to be shortened. There are two ways to increase Tg, either by adding a crystalline bulking agent ( Osmitrol ) with high eutectic temperature or an formless bulking agent with high T?g ( dextran ) ( Passot S, 2005 ) . Mannitol crystallisation along with preparations would let the primary drying freeze-drying rhythm to be carried out on a high temperature without major hazard of structural prostration. However on freeze, it may merely clear partly and organize crystallohydrate which restricts the remotion of H2O molecules on secondary drying. Besides, it exists in three different polymorph constructions ( ? , ? , and ? ) and was associated with an increased hazard of vial breakage due to volume enlargement on freeze ( Arakawa T, 2001 ; Wang W, 2000 ) . Dextran on the other manus, in add-on to the advantage mentioned above besides provides lyoprotection and offers bracing consequence upon long term storage. Effect was observed in cut downing loss of coney musculus lactate dehydrogenase activity during freeze-drying and decreased protein collection of interleukin-2 during storage at 5 ?C. However, its inclusion may besides do opposing effects. For case, inclusion of dextran 40 into preparation incorporating sucrose additions collection inclination of lyophilized interleukin-6 when stored at 40 ?C for nine months ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Finally, the pick of bulking agents was governed by principle for usage. For case, it is to be used as a matrix organizing agent or as a stabilizer. A suited pick consequences in optimum merchandise quality with enhanced stableness. Instability jobs during storage/shelf life. Although freeze-drying with the presence of excipients stabilises the protein preparation, long term storage may still give rise to chemical debasement. Formation or exchange of disulfide bonds is the major debasement pathway taking to protein collection as shown in insulin, b-galactoside and bovid serum albumen ( Chang LQ A ; Pikal M.J, 2009 ; Wang W, 2000 ) .Cysteinyl residues in protein are one of the illustrations which were capable of undergoing such reactions. It can be in the signifier of free sulphydryl group or disulphide bonds ; where on long term storage free sulphydryl group undergoes reaction to organize disulphide bonds ( Passot S, 2005 ) Usually oxidization of these reactive side ironss was introduced to change over them into less active disulfide signifiers. Intermolecular disulphide exchange on the other manus was catalyzed by free thiol group formed by b-elimination of an bing disulfide bonds. They contribute to disulphide interchange taking to intermolecular cross links ( Costantino HR, 1994 ) . Deamination besides occurs where hydrolysis of the protein side concatenation outputs a carboxylic group. Both asparagine and glutamine residue groups are susceptible towards this reaction. The rate finding measure involves intramolecular nucleophilic onslaught to organize a reactive cyclic anhydride intermediate or a cyclic imide intermediate ( Chang LQ A ; Pikal M.J, 2009 ) . Explicating at a pH below impersonal pH decreases the advancement of this reaction ( Parkins D.A A ; Lashmar U.T, 2000 ) . Example of protein deaminization includes insulin deaminization via a cyclic anhydride intermediate during storage ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Maillard reaction, besides known as browning reaction consequences from interactions between reduced sugars with basic protein residues such as lysine, arginine, asparagines and glutamine to organize saccharide adducts ( Costantino HR, 1994 ) . Reduced sugars have different responsivenesss depending on the species involved. However although saccharose is a non-reducing sugar, it can easy be reduced to organize two cut downing sugars particularly at low pH values. Hence sucrose preparations are besides susceptible towards browning. This reaction had been observed in human relaxin and interleukin-6 during storage ( Wang W, 2000 ) . PH accommodations, antioxidant use and low temperature were normally adopted to command rate of Maillard reaction ( Chang LQ A ; Pikal M.J, 2009 ) . Oxidation is besides one of the debasement pathways. It involves methionyl residue which contains a sulfur mediety in a thio-ether linkage capable of organizing sulphoxide upon oxidization. Other side ironss like cystine, histidine, and tryptophan were besides possible campaigners. However, reaction relies on local environmental status. In order to change over the O molecule into reactant species like superoxide groups or hydroxyl groups, external assistance is necessary. This may come in the signifier of visible radiation, presence of cut downing agent or transitional metal ions ( Li SH, 1996a ) . Oxidation can be minimised by add-on of sugars ( ethylene ethanediol, glycerin, glucose ) which forms H bonds to the surface of the protein and preserves its native verification ( Li SH, 1996b ) . The reaction had been observed in lyophilized interleukin-2 ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Last, storage temperature besides contributes towards protein stableness. With increasing temperature, there was an increased loss of protein activity. In add-on, it was found to advance protein collection, chemical debasement and facilitate recrystallisation of lyophilized protein. Protein collection was ascribed by an addition mobility of molecules at high temperature. Temperature induced debasement had been observed in interleukin-1 receptor adversary and tumour mortification factor. However, fickle temperatures had more damaging effects than a individual high storage temperature. Hence, storage temperature should be of a changeless low value to understate temperature induced merchandise debasement ( Wang W, 2000 ) . In decision, lyophilised merchandises are really sensitive to debasement. Hence, to bring forth a merchandise of acceptable quality with maintained efficaciousness prior to utilize, we need to ever take notes in ways to understate protein debasement. The aim for this experiment was to look into factors that would impact the stableness of lyophilized protein. Mentions: 1. Arakawa T, Prestrelski S.J, Kenney W.C, Carpenter J.F. Factors impacting short-run and long-run stablenesss of proteins. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews Mar. 2001 ; 46 ( 1-3 ) : 307-326 2. Barresia A.A, Velardia S.A, Pisanoa R, Rasettoa V, Vallanb A, Galanc M. In-line monitoring of the primary drying stage of the freeze-drying procedure in vial by agencies of a Kalman filter based observer. Chemical technology research and design. 2009a ; 87:1409-1419 3. Barresia A.A, Velardia S.A, Pisanoa R, Rasettoa V, Vallanb A, Galanc M. In-line control of the freeze-drying procedure. A soft PAT attack utilizing package detectors. International diary of infrigidation. 2009b ; 32:1003-1014. 4. Bhatnagarhttp: //informahealthcare.com/entityImage/ ? code=200B? B.S, Bognerhttp: //informahealthcare.com/entityImage/ ? code=200B? R.H, Pikal M.Jhttp: //informahealthcare.com/entityImage/ ? code=200B? . Protein Stability During Freezing: Separation of Stresses and Mechanisms of Protein Stabilization. Pharmaceutical Development and Technology. 2007 ; 12 ( 5 ) : 505-523 5. Carpenter J.F, Pikal M.J, Chang B.S, Randolph T.W. Rational Design of Stable Lyophilized Protein Formulations: Some Practical Advice. Pharmaceutical Research. Aug. 1997 ; 14 ( 8 ) : 969 975 6. Chang LQ, Pikal M.J. Mechanisms of protein stabilisation in the solid province. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2009 ; 98 ( 9 ) : 2886-2908. 7. Costantino HR, Langer R, Klibanov AM. Moisture-induced collection of lyophilised insulin. Pharm Research. 1994 ; 11 ( 1 ) :21-29. 8. Franks F, Auffret T. Freeze-drying of Pharmaceuticals and Biopharmaceuticals. Principles and Practice. Cambridge. The Royal Society of Chemistry. 2007. p.4, 10, 134-140, 173 9. Heller, M.C. , Carpenter, J.F. , Randolph, T.W. Protein preparation and freeze-drying rhythm design: bar of harm due to freeze-concentration induced stage separation. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 1999 ; 63: 166-174. 10. Jara F.L, Pilosof A.M.R. Glass passage temperature of protein polysaccharide co-dried mixtures as affected by the extent and morphology of stage separation. Thermochimica Acta. Apr. 2009 ; 487 ( 1-2 ) : 65-73 11. Liao YH, Brown MB, Quader A, Martin GP. Protective Mechanism of Stabilizing Excipients against Dehydration in the Freeze Drying of Proteins. Pharmaceutical Research. Dec. 2002 ; 19 ( 12 ) : 1854 1861. 12. Li SH, Patapoff TW, Overcashier D, Hsu C, Nguyen TH, Borchardt RT. Effectss of cut downing sugars on the chemical stableness of human relaxin in the lyophilised province. J Pharm Sci. 1996a ; 85 ( 8 ) :873-877. 13. Li SH, Patapoff TW, Nguyen TH, Borchardt RT. Inhibitory consequence of sugars and polyols on the metal-catalyzed oxidization of human relaxin. J Pharm Sci 1996b ; 85 ( 8 ) :868-872. 14. Maltesen M.J, van de Weert M. Drying methods for protein pharmaceuticals. Drug Discov Today: Technol 2008 ; e1 e7 15. McNally E.J, Hastedt E.J, Swarbrick J. Protein Formulation and Delivery. 2nd edition. NY. Informa Healthcare USA, Inc. 2007. p. 177 212 16. Passot S, Fonseca F, Alarcon-Lorca M, Rolland D, Marin M. Physical word picture of preparations for the development of two stable lyophilized proteins during both dried and liquid storage. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics. Aug. 2005 ; 60 ( 3 ) : 335-348 17. Parkins D.A, Lashmar U.T. The preparation of biopharmaceutical merchandises Pharmaceutical Science A ; Technology Today. Apr. 2000 ; 3 ( 4 ) : 129-137 18. Pikal-Cleland K.A, Nair Rodriguez-Hornedo, Amidon G. L, Carpenter J.F. Protein Denaturation during Freezing and Thawing in Phosphate Buffer Systems: Monomeric and Tetrameric ?-Galactosidase. Archivess of Biochemistry and Biophysics. Dec 2000 ; 384 ( 2 ) : 398-406 19. Privalov PL. Cold Denaturation of Proteins. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 1990 ; 25 ( 4 ) : 281-306. 20. Randolph TW. Phase Separation of Excipients during Lyophilization: Effectss on Protein Stability. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. Jul. 1997 ; 86 ( 11 ) : 1198-1203 21. Tang XL, Pikal M.J. Measurement of the Kinetics of Protein Unfolding in Viscous Systems and Implications for Protein Stability in Freeze-Drying. Pharmaceutical Research. Jul. 2005 ; 22 ( 7 ) : 1176-1185. 22. Timasheff, S.N. The control of protein stableness and association by weak interactions with H2O: how do dissolvers impact these procedures? Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure. Jun 1993 ; 22: 67-97. 23. Wang W. Lyophilization and development of solid protein pharmaceuticals. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2000 ; 203: 1-60 24. Zapata M.I. , Feldkamp J.R. , Peck G.E. , White J.L. , Hem S.L. , Mechanism of freeze-thaw instability of aluminium hydroxycarbonate and Mg hydrated oxide gels. J. Pharm. Sci. 1984 ; 73: 3-8.

Social work Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Social work - Assignment Example From the first chapter, I was able to understand why it is important to study human behavior theories. According to Robins et al, a theory is an idea that has to be backed by certain evidence or proof (3). Human behavior theories are therefore ideas or propositions which try to explain why humans behave the way they do. These theories are backed by evidence that have been observed and documented over the years (4). The reason why we study human behavior theories is to be able to understand human behavior. According to Robbins et al the human behavior is a complex phenomenon (7). This is basically people are different. When the behavior of people is studied and documented in the form of theories, it is possible to understand why a person behaves the way he or she does in the society.. Without the theories, analyzing, and understand how people behave is quite difficult. From the first chapter, I was also able to appreciate the concept of social construction of theories (13). The social construction of theories is basically concerned with the development of a constructed understanding of the world (14). In the social development of these human development theories, the meaning of these theories is not developed separately within the individual but rather in synchronization with other human beings (16). From the first chapter, I was able to appreciate the various aspects that are important in developing and understanding these human behavior theories. Various ideologies, scientifically developed theories as well as social work practices form the basis of understanding the human behavior. It is however worth noting that despite the importance of the social construction of the theories, it is greatly affected by determinism nod reductionism (19). Reductionism refers to the practice of reducing the human behavior all down to a single factor such as biological cognitive or behavioral

INFORMATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION Essay

INFORMATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION - Essay Example However, each unit works towards a single mission or vision of the organization in general. In this regard, the system approach to organization structure and management is superior to the general system theory. This is explained by the fact that synergy of the production of the different subsystems of the larger system enable an organization to effectively and efficiently achieve its objectives. Caro, Guevara and Aguayo (2003, p. 298) point out that the application of information system within an organization is congruent with the system approach of organization management and design. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) allows organizations to integrate the subsystems or units of an organization so that they work towards a common goal regardless of the uniqueness of their individual functionalities. Human resource is the most significant entity of a system or organization. As a result, the development of an information system by the IT professionals must involve human capital. This es say is a critical analysis, evaluation and discussion of the need for collaboration of HR with IT professionals in the adoption and implementation of an information system. The essay covers issues related to organizational preparedness in the implementation of an information system, the significance of all the stakeholders of the system, system approach and management approaches of the systems. It is through Enterprise Resource (ERP) planning that the achievement of an information system which integrates all units of an organization as a system is made possible. Bocij, et al., (2003) say that Porter’s Model which describes the implications of external forces on a system clearly demonstrates the significance of suppliers, buyers, new entrants, competition and substitution in an information system. Therefore it is argued that during the process of ERP, the design of an information system must give due consideration of the impact that the external factors and stakeholders have o n the success of an information system implementation. According to Elliot (2004), design of an information system must take into consideration of its suitability in meeting the objectives of the organization and the needs of the human resource, and the stakeholders of the organization such as suppliers and distributors. Moreover, the design of an information system must also be considerate of the competition so that its implementation gives the organization a competitive edge against the competition. Caro, Guevara and Aguayo (2003, p. 298) point out that the components of an information system illustrate the importance of integration of the designers or the system and the users. Information systems are composed of hardware, software, people, policies, procedures and data. Hardware and software represent the computing systems within the information system including business application software. The people within the information system are the individuals who use the information sys tem or users, the IT personnel and the administrators or managers of the system. Barros (2005) adds that the users of an information system include the human resource, suppliers, distributors and even agents of an organization. Procedures and policies are the guidelines and standards of the system which provide the appropriate approaches of implementing the information system. The data within any information system is composed of the statistics or quantitative data within the databases of the system which is usually synthesized into usable information. Dalcher and Brodie (2007) argue that for the implementation of an information system to be successful, all of its components must work in unison. This means that the componen

Impact of Western Culture in Bangladesh Essay Example for Free

Impact of Western Culture in Bangladesh Essay The following research report deals with the Impact of western culture in our society includes people’s thought according their age level, how the Bengali culture is becoming a westernized and which factors are related with that. We took only Dhaka city for our research survey. Acknowledgement First of all we would like to thank our Almighty God, because of His blessings were always with us so that we were able to complete this report.We are grateful to many people for providing us encouragement and support during our learning and working while making this report and we want to show our gratefulness to these people. We are very much grateful to Prof.Toufiqul Islam, our teacher of Research Methodology course, who provided us opportunity to do this report. It was not possible for us to perform this report without his sincere permission, constant support and inspiration. We express our gratefulness to him.Our pleasant thanks to all of our respondents who gave us all kinds of support and important information related to our report. We would also like to thank our friends and peers for their encouragement, support, and suggestions which helped us to make this report an effective one. 1. Introduction Bangladesh is a melting pot of races. She, therefore, has a mixed culture. However, her deep rooted heritage is amply reflected in her architecture, literature, dance, drama, music and painting and also in people’s lifestyle. She has own Language Bengali which boasts a rich literary heritage. Now if we speak about Western culture, it is a wide range of culture that performed by the whole world. Now-a-days this culture is highly spreading in our country and people are paying their interest into western culture by the help of globalization.Mostly the young generations and highly aristocratic families are very much influenced by western culture which holds negative impact on our own culture. So, we have to make clear consciousness to the community for making strong cultural bond and better society. From that sense, it is necessary to take a research about the impact of Western culture in our society. And, we believe that the following research report will help to find out the conclusion with valuable recommendation. 1.1 Basic of the study Bangladeshi culture is influenced by three great religions- Hinduism, Buddhism band Islam in successive order, with Islam having the most pervading and lasting impact. Like a colorful montage, the cultural tradition of the country is a happy blending of many variants, unique in diversity but in essence greatly symmetrical. On the other hand, Western culture began in Ancient Greece. Today, Western culture has at least some presence in nearly all nations of the world. It does not currently exist, however, anywhere in a perfect and complete form. Western culture currently dominates in many Western and Central European nations and several nations settled by Europeans and their descendants. Western culture also significantly exists in many Asian nations, such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore, and it is increasingly influential in India and China. Western culture currently has little meaningful presence also in Bangladesh. [4] In this research report we choose Dhaka city as for many reason like shortage of time, also we live in this city so it is quite easy for our study, besides as Dhaka city is the capital of Bangladesh and most aristocratic family live in this city. So it is also easy to know about people’s thought on our topic. 1.2 Background of the study From the historical perspective, Bangladeshi culture has rich literary heritage. The riverside landscape and the monsoon climate are closely related to the cultural practices of this country. It focuses the lifestyles and culture value of the indigenous people. From the earlier age, people give value and maintain social customs which are in our culture. However, people are now following some of the western cultures beside their own one. Mostly, the young generation is very much interested on English movies, western music, dresses, foods and other things rather than Bengali culture. Now, young generation and even also middle age people are not that much conscious about Bengali culture because of the globalization. In this way, Bengali culture is now no more originated by own culture, even it is losing her own value. In this research, we collect opinions about the impact of western culture from people by field survey. 1.3 Importance of the topic For our research, we choose ‘The Impact of Western culture In Our Society’ as our topic for its importance on the effect of cultural globalization (which means the commercialization of culture). Now a day’s the production and consumption of cultural goods and services has become commodities, along with the essentials of social life (marriage and family life, religion work and leisure). What once was an element of the way of life becomes a product, rather than something unique men had made to suit their own needs and circumstances. In urban Bangladesh, technology of multi- channels TV began in 1991 and hence satellite broadcasting has been delivering lots of channels to viewers. Cultural domination by electronic media within the society thus has eventually become a major concern of sociological inquiry. The present study is one of such effort to look at how the urban people, mostly youth has accepted and responded to their access to Western culture. [3] 1.4 Literature Review In this part we found some of the information which is discussed in different articles and reports relevant to our topic. Even though many book focused about the impact of western culture and how people are taking it besides their own one without any hesitation. After reviewing different sources, we just focus on ‘The Impact of Western Culture in Our Society’ from three different angles. These are: †¢ Impact of cultural Globalization. †¢ Positive impact of westernization. †¢ Negative impact of westernization. Impact of socio cultural Globalization Now a day’s every country in this world is treated as village, you can imagine whatever you can. That’s the way people are communicate easily to each other make things differences. Globalization has only one overarching feature–integration. It is all about collectiveness and ever increasing interconnectedness. It in effect influences everything, whether it is a company or a country. But here is a fact, is globalization all the way keeps help to connect to each other or build a strong communication in â€Å"borderless world†? If it is a question, then how it impacts in our society as well as in our culture? The Cable television has made different attraction in around the world as well as in Bangladeshi household. Foreign movies have come and have reflected their culture in it. This has made a huge impact on the minds of the Bangladeshi people. Not to mention the easy availability of Internet whose reach even extends till rural areas? The internet has opened up opportunities for people to learn more about foreign cultures and places. It has made Bangladeshi more acceptable and open-minded towards change. Globalization has broken all borders. As a result, the new generation of Bangladeshi is more knowledgeable, more aware and more interested in the world around them. In our society, women who were once the exploited and ignored part of the population, now assert their rights of being a woman. Women now have more access to education and know more about their rights and their identity as a woman. Nowadays, you find women in the society who work alongside men. Men-dominated fields see the coming up of the woman. Men and women are slowly being treated equally. However, this does not mean that all Bangladeshi women are fully free. In many places, exploitation still continues. [5] Positive impact of westernization Due to globalization, westernization is spreading out all over the world. Westernization has been placed in different countries because of globalization and needless to say, it has had an impact on the Bangladesh way of life. It has out-rooted the traditional Bengali culture and the rate at which westernization is happening to Bangladesh is surprising. Regional languages are on the process of redefined. In many ways instating of regional language people have been used to English especially in urban areas youngsters. It had started get fixing with western clothing, western languages, western mannerisms and everything else westernized. Beside, the festival of Pohela Baishak, people is now celebrating like other western cultural festivals especially in young groupsuch as- †¢ Valentine’s Day, †¢ Friendship Day, †¢ Mother’s day, †¢ Father’s day. †¢ And other international celebrations. Now a day people are concern about how we think about globally, what the other country are doing in their cultural issue, just we observe and absorbing them. There is lot of issues that we automatically know about it; even he/she has a little knowledge about westernization. But, people are moving with it in all the way. Negative impact of westernization At the side of the positive, Bangladeshi people are involving day by day with negative activities which our own culture because of following western culture. However no matter have occurred by this way, what people are doing in our society. With Globalization and westernization of our culture, Bangladesh now has access to things like adult movies, pornographic material, sex toys and other sexual content from all around the world especially in young group of people. Bangladeshi’s population has been corrupted thanks by easy access which has been brought about by westernization. In fact, this has gone to such limits that now pornographic material is even made in Bangladesh also. These perverted habits have raised a population who sometimes are so full of hunger for that they choice to rape. It is a fact that rape cases have risen since the spread of globalization. So that, western dress is another factor that creates an imbalance in our society especially for woman group (whenever girls wear a shirt, t-shirt, and pant in our society, due to feel or sensation of comfortable) which does not permit within our culture as majority of Muslim nationality. For wearing that kind of dresses men are mostly thinking in negative sense. In a view of culture, how and from which cases we are thinking that Bengali culture becomes westernized, for that we assume several other questions which are listed below, †¢ Why we think about westernization? †¢ Is westernization needed to fulfill our Bengali culture? †¢ To identify what kind of differentiations within peoples thought about westernization from different age level? †¢ What are the options available for Bangladesh? The previous findings have reported results on the western culture effect on urban youth generation in our society. However, according to above mentioned circumstances, the present study takes the initiative to conduct an empirical investigation based on the impact of western culture in our society includes people’s thought according their age level, how the Bengali culture is becoming a westernized and which factors are related with that. The findings from this study will work as a valuable guideline to give respect our own culture and to be a wholesome Bangladeshi. 1.5 Objectives of the study The main objective of this study is to focus on the impact of western culture based on different age level and build up the awareness about the negative sides among Bangladeshi people. According to our objectives we have decided that we will give our full attention and also we will be very active and patience to survey our research. In this way, we can fulfill our research successfully with a bunch of information. 2. Research Method For conducting our research, we implement research methods that directly related to our topic which indicates the core information about a research and explains how that information is correlated. In our research method we include study material, data collection method and data analysis method which help to go our research result and discussion section. For this part we will fulfill some specific requirements,  ¬ Describe procedure as completely as possible so that someone can’t duplicate it completely  ¬ Define sample and characteristics, which is consistent throughout the test.  ¬ List the variables used these are what change, or manipulate, throughout the test.  ¬ Try to precise criticism which might arise from readers mind. 2.1. Study Materials In this part, we consider study materials from people thought. That’s why, we define sample into three categorized way and taking out specific data from different age class people. Three age class: Age 18-30 (class 1); Age 31-45(class 2) and Age 45+ (class 3) For doing this part effectively we collect data from different age level and clarify about the variation of their thoughts about western culture beside Bangladeshi culture. Class 1: Most of the Class 1 people are student and some of them are service holder. It is very much easy to clarify their thoughts into short period of time. Class 2: In our class 2, most of the people are service holder and they are in middle age. Class 3: Finally last group is class 3 and people are no more in their job or involved in other social activities, basically people are staying with their family, but still we found that some them are even also involved with their job. 2.2. Methods of Collection Data Data collection process is crucial process in research report, if the process is biased or incomplete then it’s very difficult to analyze the data and it decreases quality of report. For our research purpose we get information from both two type of data collection source one is primary data and another one is secondary data. Primary data: Primary data indicates the core information about the topic and data collected from field survey work. There are different types of survey like, We make a structured questionnaire, which has been attached in the Appendix- 1 of this paper. This questionnaire is for three age level people and we give it to them like who is mostly able to read and understand what we are really wants. In this survey types, responder give their opinion about our topic in written and multiple choice form. For this part we take total sixty samples (each class 20 samples) as our core requirement. 2.3. Methods of Analyzing Data In this part we analyze the collected data from our survey- questionnaire. Here, we represent those data by graph, chart and table which is called frequency counting data. However, in case of qualitative data we take observation method. We collect our samples and put it them into a quantitative form so that we represents it as a percentage form. 3. Result, Discussion Findings To complete this part we consider several item to measure our determine information. All we know that cultural issue is very diverse concept which contains many ideas that indicates different type of individual characteristics. So that here we show some of those issue that indicate cultural aspect directly and by conducting a questionnaire survey we found some answer of specific data that might indicate and fulfill our main objectives. Due to presenting our result and discussion, we work with three different age scale of people which was define in earlier part and want to indicate the variation of preference between each class. Here, we identify our final result in percentage form and firstly we collect appearance from responders, add responder’s number (total sample 60) and make it as percentage form indicates what percentage people are positively responses our questions. After that add up all the heads percentage make it as average percentage point out how many people are positive about western culture. Firstly we want to know from responders’ western culture in general way. By asking those responders give their individual opinion about general requirements. In the first part of questionnaire following heads are included. Table1: Western Culture in responders mind in general Depending on above information we assume that by a simple calculation (average) of those data and show as it a percentage form. So that Bengali people now think about western culture from basic perspective approximately 39%. It means that they are positively given their opinion regarding western culture in our culture. And other way 61% responders gave non- positive responses which indicate might they prefer positive as Bengali culture. In different region different kind of cultural views and life style are followed. It seems to if one country’s positive thought is appreciate it might the negative for another country. So that we collect sample in a way that really Bengali people are absorbing WC day by day. Table2: Views and lifestyle preference in responders mind Sources: A survey conducted for this research in July, 2010 This table indicates four different view of western culture in our people. We select this heads to find out how many people intentionally or unintentionally belief WC views and lifestyle. Firstly in class1 60%, class2 30% and class3 25%, and also in total sample 38% people prefer nuclear family rather extended family, where most of WS has nuclear family. Another most important in our marriage system which one we prefer, from our cultural view mostly prefer arrange marriage. But in our survey class1 60%, class2 70% and class3 20%, and also in total sample 50% people are appearance with love or affair marriage. Similarly class1 80%, class2 90% and class3 90%, and also in total sample 87% people support with husband and wife have to live together. And also class1 55%, class2 35% and class3 10%, and also in total sample 34% people usually celebrate western festival beside their own one. Graph.B: Views and lifestyle preference in responders mind Now here we represent a chart indicate 52% people are support western culture values and fixing up in their mind. People are no more in our traditional culture by origin; day by day it changes and will changes in next generation. And other way 48% responders gave non- positive responses which indicate might their belief in Bengali traditional value. Bangladeshi people are now a day’s changing their behavior and habit in food, dress and other activities also. Easily converted to western ideas some cases it makes a question mark in our ethical perspective also. We referred those western materials by like fast food is needed to minimize time consumption and also it’s comfortable for shot meal. Another thing, people like to wear western dress for fashion and for comfortable. Similarly now people are conscious about their health so that mostly younger are goes to gym even middle aged people also. Sources: A survey conducted for this research in July, 2010 Here in this table represents to how many people are preferred with western tests and habit. We indentify people’s individual test, preference and habit in their regular life. Representing four head define how many people positively response our concerns. Firstly in class1 30%, class2 0% and class3 0%, and also in total sample 10% people prefer fast food in their regular meal. Another thing is in class1 55%, class2 45% and class3 10%, and also in total sample 37% people prefer western dress in their dress code. In class1 50%, class2 60% and class3 85%, and also in total sample 65% people regularly maintain their religious activities. And last one is in class1 75%, class2 25% and class3 15%, and also in total sample 38% people now people now think about going to gymnasium for physical fitness exercise. Individual classes graph and chart are enclosed in appendix part. Graph.C: Personal tastes, preferences and habits of the respondents This chart indicates people’s day to day life that how many of them support western test and habit. Here we found there are 36% people are positively responds our specific questions and give their real interest on western culture by survey. And other way 64% responders gave non- positive responses which indicate might they prefer Bengali test and habit. From very beginning Bengali people might in some case restricted. Like people were not that much free or friendly with their parents. Another thing is mentally depends on parents and also relatives. But at present we see some positive idea which is really effective for us like easy relationship with parents, self dependency etc. Sources: A survey conducted for this research in July, 2010 This table shows that, in class1 70%, class2 65% and class3 50%, and also in total sample 62% people think very easy relationship with parents. Another thing is in class1 10%, class2 30% and class3 65%, and also in total sample 35% people prefer self dependency due to mentally support. And in class1 55%, class2 30% and class3 10%, and also in total sample 32% people like to enjoy any occasion with friends. Graph.D: Relationships with parents, siblings and peer groups of the respondents Above graph shows responders relationship status between family, friends or siblings. Here we found 43% responders support of very easy relationship, self dependency and celebrate occasion with friends. And other hand 57% responders non- positively responds, meaning to say they prefer other status for their relationship, like not so easy relationship with parents, mentally depends on parents and also family belongingness. Finally we found that, people as responders now consider western culture. Approximately half of our total responders support with it. From the positive point of view day by day people absorbing western cultural values, sometimes its brings a good for our society. But on the other hand it diminishing our own cultural vale which nobody wants, so that we have to concern our cultural issues as much as possible and which one is good we have to must take it and also avoid bad thing that brings imbalance in our culture. †¢ Observation For this research we need to take observation method for getting more information. By our observation, we found that, in case of Muslim family, an older woman embarrassed over and is desperately trying to avoid eye contact in TV screen, blazing loud music on the popular music video channel, MTV. The inadequately dressed presenter introduces her ‘top song’ for the week. A star celebrity dressed in so very little and exposed herself as much as possible. The old woman’s son is captive by what he sees. He pays no attention to his mother, young wife or even his own little son also. In this way, Children are involving some bad works which derived from western culture particularly from cable connection at their home. In some cases, young generation forget to respect their elder one. In our field survey, we observe that, boys and girls are very much interested on going to DJ party at different night club. And, sometimes they want to live together before marriage which is extremely prohibited by our culture. Boys are using Tattoos on their body also. The present scenario of Bangladeshi culture like as in this diagram we show that, western stuffs like shirt, pant, music and festivals are now mixing with Bengali’s traditional stuffs. 4. Limitation of study To conduct this research we had some limitations, first of all it should be mentioned that we are beginning level of researcher and the topic was controversial as it holds both positive and negative impact in our society according to people’s perception. As there was time limitation, we cannot collect sufficient data and samples relating to our topic which is very difficult stuff to fulfill the analyzing of samples. While working for this report we found there was not available data related with our topic to get assistance from the internet, books, articles, research papers to make a well furnished literature review and secondary sources. As a result, it took a lot of time to gather information from other sources. 5. Conclusion and Recommendation Eventually, it can be concluded that, this research has found a lot of significant issues that is Western culture is not a curse to our society but it can bring a lot of negative effects. We must understand that the young generations are the future image of our country. So, it is necessary to enlighten them about our own cultural values which will make our nation proud. In Bangladesh perspective, since it is the one of very few and one way concentration on the impact of western culture. I hope that this thesis contains the groundwork of further research, which may find useful tools considering the probable findings in the long run. No study has been done at before. However, for doing this research we used our best analysis and tried to make the research as full proof but due to short sample, we cannot recommend it as full proof. That’s why, we want to recommend for further modification as we believe that research is a never ending process.

Essay --

The purpose of this paper is to examine the formation of urban sprawl including its impacts on people and to explore efficient alternatives. Urban sprawl is a common problem that the world is currently facing in the process of urbanization. The North America urban sprawl that began from 1950s has been regarded as an illness of urban developments. With the purpose of drawing lessons and enlightens to a sustainable urban planning, this paper tries to analyze social and economic reasons that have been the motivation of North American urban sprawl. And interpret the causes and effects of urban sprawl, and what can we take to mitigate this phenomenon? Secondly, the paper introduces the most famous new planning movements such as Sustainable Development, Smart Growth, New Urbanism and so on. Finally, based on above observation, the paper proposes that lessons should be drawn from North American’s mistakes and not follows them. Furthermore, the paper probes into several problems in se eking a proper urban space model and policy on the process of urbanization. We must alert urban sprawl and keep on exploring sustainable urban governance policy and pay attention to induct the public opinion on consumption and culture in finding for the mechanism of structural innovation. We should commit to build sustainable transport system to reduce the consumption of automobiles. We should promote multi-intensive model of land use in urban exploration. Keywords: urban sprawl, urban planning, Introduction Started from the 1950s, the movement that many post-war cities expanded outward to form a mass migration from the center of the city surrounded by low-density suburban living patterns generally referred to as "urban sprawl." The problems posed by the... ...rt there will be no urbanization. Economy has its own rules and its own development. We cannot "push" or "speed up" subjectively, Destructive Enthusiasm in urban planning will be a dead end. Therefore, in reality, we must guard against false or excessive urbanization driven by the interests of the regime and to halt the urban sprawl-style expansion, to achieve a gradual urbanization. "New Urbanism", "compact city", "smart growth" provides us with useful ideas. There are few tiny gaps between the focus of these concepts, but their main principle is the same, namely to improve the utilization efficiency of urban space and create policies to control urban sprawl. Change the city zoning concept, promoting diversification of land use; reduce reliability on motorized travel; improve public transport to stimulate the vitality of the city It is our common goal of the future

Input-Output Multiplier Analysis for Major Industries in the Philippines.Pdf

11th National Convention on Statistics (NCS) EDSA Shangri-La Hotel October 4-5, 2010 INPUT-OUTPUT MULTIPLIER ANALYSIS FOR MAJOR INDUSTRIES IN THE PHILIPPINES by Madeline B. Dumaua For additional information, please contact: Author’s name Designation Affiliation Address Tel. no. E-mail Madeline B. Dumaua Statistician III Statistical Research and Training Center Quezon City +632-4260620 [email  protected] gov. ph INPUT-OUTPUT MULTIPLIER ANALYSIS FOR MAJOR INDUSTRIES IN THE PHILIPPINES1 by Madeline B. Dumaua2 ABSTRACT The study aims to assess the impact of the different major industries of the Philippines using Input-Output Multiplier Analysis. It attempts to do this by using the 2000 Input-Output Accounts of the Philippines (I-O Accounts), the most recently published tables by the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB). As the economic importance of the 11 major industries is growing among the policy makers and researchers, this study applied input-output technique in determining economic effects to gauge the significance of these industries in generating output, income and employment. Key sectors are identified in term of multipliers; the higher the multiplier, the stronger is the ability of the corresponding sector to create multiple impacts in the economy. The obtained multipliers showed that among major industries, the Manufacturing Industry showed the highest final demand-to-output multiplier; the Construction Industry gained the highest output-to-output multiplier; and Private Services Industry is found to have the highest income and employment multipliers. KEY WORDS: Input-output, Multiplier 1. Introduction Sectors of an economy are naturally interdependent. An input stimulates production in a sector directly, but it may also stimulate production in other sectors as well, where the intensity can be downgraded. The residual effect of an input beyond the intended sector is called multiplier that describes interrelationships among sectors of the economy. The multiplier effect provides a quantification of the direct and indirect effect on growth of the sector, possibly measured in terms of production output. Different economic multipliers like those for output, income, and employment can be used to determine economic effect for an industry. The Leontieff model or the Input-Output model can be used to track the complex web of production linkages among industries in the country within the framework of interdependencies. This study will assess the impact of the different sectors of the economy in terms of output, income and employment. Thus, Input-Output multiplier analysis was performed to determine the effect of the different major industry groups. 2. Objectives of the Study The study aimed to measure the economic effects of the major industry groups using Input-Output Multiplier Analysis. Specifically, the study intended to: 1. easure the multiplier effect of changes in final demand on the output of individual industries and the whole economy (Final Demand-to-Output Impact Multiplier) 1 2 One of the in-house research undertakings of the Research and Information Technology Division (RITD) of the Statistical Research and Training Center (SRTC) of the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) Statistician III, Res earch and Information Technology Division (RITD) of the Statistical Research and Training Center (SRTC) of the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) 1 2. etermine the impact of changes in each industry’s output on the total output (Outputto-Output Impact Multiplier) 3. find out the impact of changes in each industry’s output on household income (Household Income Multiplier) 4. determine the impact changes of output in an industry on employment (Employment Multiplier) 3. Significance of the Study In economics, the multiplier effect refers to the idea that the initial amount of money invested by government leads to an even greater increase in national income. In other words, an initial change in aggregate demand causes a change in ggregate output of the economy that is multiple of the initial. This measures the degree to which various businesses and households in an economy are interrelated. This measure the impact of a given external change, such as new inv estment, export expansion, start up of a new businesses, on total economic activity in a given community or country, through the respending of new dollars within that economy. The multiplier has been used to justify government spending or taxation relief that will stimulate aggregate demand. Many governments consider spending/tax break as instruments to stimulate aggregate demand. This is usually implemented during a period of recession or economic uncertainty. The money invested by a government is believed to create more jobs, which in turn will mean more spending that further fuel activities in various sectors of the economy. The idea is that the net increase in disposable income by different stakeholders throughout the economy will be greater than the original investment. As this happens, government can increase the gross domestic product by an amount that is greater than an increase in the amount it spends relative to the amount it collects in taxes. Multiplier focuses on the relationship between spending and consumption. It is also referred as expenditure multiplier. The concept holds that a spending, whether initiated by the government, corporations or households, will trigger the national income. Expenditure multiplier does not differentiate between consumption and investment spending. Examples of multipliers include I-O multipliers which are derived from I-O tables and show the impact of spending in certain industry on various economic variable including GDP, employment, output and wages and salaries, etc. . Limitations of the Study The paper makes use of the 2000 Input-Output tables from the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB). It only uses I-O multiplier analysis in estimating multipliers. While I-O multipliers can be a rich source of information, they also have some limitations. These include: I-O models treat all inputs as complements and exclude substitutes implying that increases in the demand for one input w ill only lead to demand increases for other inputs. The I-O model does not consider price-adjusting behavior or substitution effects. Because the model is entirely open, there is no scarcity of resources. The economy is assumed to have limitless amounts of all the inputs it requires. 2 I-O models produce a snapshot of the economy at a given point in time. Structural changes in the economy over time will reduce the validity of results produced by I-O models. Analysis based on I-O models does not explicitly consider alternatives and tends to show only benefits of expenditures while ignoring costs. The impacts considered through the I-O model are short-term and at the margin: there is no consideration of whether the economy has the capacity to incorporate the changes and whether changes in production are sustainable or cost competitive. Given these limitations, I-O multipliers can still provide a useful, but rough, initial indication of the economic impact of changes in spending in different industries. 5. Data and Methodology This study was primarily carried out based on the 2000 Input-Output Accounts of the Philippines (I-O Accounts), the most recently published tables by the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB). In order to assess the economic effect of all major industries in the whole economy, the Input-Output Multiplier Analysis was used. The major industry groups used in the study include the following: For the employment multiplier analysis, data for the total number of persons employed in each industry was taken from the 2000 Census of Philippine Business and Industry (CPBI) of the National Statistics Office (NSO) while data for the Gross Value-Added (GVA) was taken from 2000 Economic Accounts of the NSCB. Table 1. Major Industry Groups Major Industry Groups Code 01 Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry 02 Mining and Quarrying 03 Manufacturing 04 Construction 05 Electricity, Gas and Water 06 Transportation, Storage and Communication 07 Wholesale and Retail Trade 08 Finance 09 Real Estate 10 Private Services 11 Government Services 5. 1 Computation of Final Demand-to-Output Multiplier The step by step procedure in generating Final Demand-to-Output multiplier analysis is described below: 1. Get the column elements of the inverse matrix for all major industries. 2. Multiply the column elements by the impact variable to get the specific impact on each industry. . Get the total of the column elements of the inverse matrix for all major industries. 4. Multiply the total column elements by the impact variable to get the impact on the entire economy. 3 5. 2 Output-to-Output Multiplier The step by step procedure in generating Output-to-Output multiplier analysis is described below: 1. 2. 3. 4. Obtain the IO inverse matrix for all major industries. Divide each column by its diagonal element. Get the column sums of the output-to-output inverse matrix. The column sums are the output-to-output multipliers for each industry. 5. 3. Household Income Multiplier The step by step procedure in generating Household Income multiplier analysis is described below: 1. Get the household income coefficients of all the major industries in the economy by dividing the compensation of employees by the total input of the corresponding industry. 2. Multiply the column elements of the inverse matrix of all major industries by all the household income coefficients. 3. Add all the products to get the household income multiplier. 5. 4 Employment Multiplier The step by step procedure in generating employment multiplier analysis is described below: 1. Get employment coefficients of all industries in the economy by calculating the employment in each industry and dividing it by gross value-added (GVA). Data for the total number of persons employed in each industry was taken from the 2000 Census of Philippine Business and Industry (CPBI) of the National Statistics Office (NSO). Data for GVA was taken from 2000 Economic Accounts of the NSCB. 2. After getting the employment coefficients, get the employment multiplier. Employment multiplier is computed by multiplying employment coefficient with inverse matrix. This gives the individual effects of construction for each industry. If we sum up the multipliers, this somehow gives an effect of the construction industry in the economy. 3. In doing simulation, i. e. , government increases construction output by One (1) Billion, multiply the 1billion increase to each employment multiplier where the result will provide possible additional jobs in every industry creating a corresponding effect in the whole. 4. These multipliers are additional jobs aside from the existing employment in the construction. In other words, the multiplier analysis assumes that from start to finish, these additional employments were generated already, or in place. The IO multiplier analysis cannot determine whether these additional jobs happened before, during or after the construction stages. 6. Results and Discussion 6. 1 Summary of Multipliers Following the computation procedure presented above, the I-O multipliers were estimated for output, income and employment in the Philippine economy. An I-O model has the ability to identify the important sectors of an economy at a national (or even at a regional level). Key sectors are identified in term of multipliers; the higher the multiplier, the 4 stronger is the ability of the corresponding sector to create multiple impacts in the economy. The sectoral multipliers are used in the impact analysis to estimate the impacts for policy change in all 11 sectors, see Table 2 for details. Among the 11 major industries, the Manufacturing Industry yields the largest finaldemand to output multiplier of 2. 15. The Construction Industry and the Transportation, Communication and Storage Industry constitute the second and third most important output generating industries with both multipliers of around 1. 93, respectively. However, output-to-output multiplier shows that the Construction Industry yields the highest multiplier of 1. 2, which means that a one-peso change in the output of the Construction Industry generates a 1. 92 pesos worth of additional output in the economy. This is followed by Transportation, Communication and Storage and the Private Services, with multipliers of 1. 85 and 1. 70, respectively. Output-to-output multipliers can be used to measure the impact of a change in output in a particular industry on the output of the whole economy. The Private Services Industry is the most important income generating sector with the highest income multiplier of 0. 39. The second most important sector is the Construction Industry in terms of income generation which is holding an income multiplier of 0. 36. The Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry ranks third among the income generating industries with an income multiplier of 0. 33. 5 Table 2. Summary of the Multipliers: Final Demand-to-Output, Output-to-Output, Household Income, and Employment. Final OutputHousehold Total DemandOutput Income Employment Industry Description Output Multipliers Multiplier Multipliers Multipliers Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry 1. 466693 1. 321942 0. 336922 0. 000001 Mining and Quarrying 1. 702768 1. 647777 0. 235379 0. 00002 Manufacturing 2. 152964 1. 340648 0. 265802 0. 000004 Construction 1. 937681 1. 923491 0. 365889 0. 000003 Electricity, Gas and Water 1. 567449 1. 431400 0. 198316 0. 000002 Transportation, Communication and Storage 1. 937634 1. 859610 0. 256182 0. 000003 Trade 1. 658849 1. 611999 0. 265008 0. 000005 Finance 1. 654636 1. 636633 0. 244516 0. 000003 Real Estate 1. 197308 1. 194264 0. 05703 0. 000004 Private Services 1. 919238 1. 701126 0. 391793 0. 000006 Government Services 1. 533628 1. 533628 0. 080845 0. 000001 6 The number of employment generated for a given unit of expenditure/output can be estimated by employment multiplier. The result shows that the Private Services Industry has the highest employment multiplier of 6Ãâ€"10-6. The second highest important sector in generating employment is the Trade (Wholesale and Retail) Industry with a multiplier of 6Ãâ€"10-5 followed by the Manufacturing and Real Estate Industries with both employment multipliers of around 6Ãâ€"10-5. 6. 2 Final Demand-to-Output Multiplier Effect The final demand-to-output multiplier is used to measure the impact of a change in final demand on the output of individual industries and the whole economy. This tells us about the additional output generated in each industry given an impact increase in the investment in each industry (impact variable). Table 3 shows the impact of a 100 million peso increase the investments in the 11 major industries. Results showed that this spending has the greatest impact in the Manufacturing Industry with an additional generated output of 215 million pesos. This is followed by the Construction Industry and the Transportation, Communication and Storage Industry with both an additional output of approximately 193 million pesos. 7 Table 3. Final Demand-to-Output Multiplier Effect for a 100 Million Investment. Industry Output Multipliers Impact Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry 1. 466693 146,669,300 Mining and Quarrying 1. 702768 170,276,800 Manufacturing 2. 152964 215,296,400 Construction 1. 937681 193,768,100 Electricity, Gas and Water 1. 567449 156,744,900 Transportation, Communication and Storage 1. 937634 193,763,400 Trade 1. 658849 165,884,900 Finance 1. 654636 165,463,600 Real Estate 1. 197308 119,730,800 Private Services 1. 919238 191,923,800 Government Services 1. 533628 153,362,800 8 Table 4 shows the inverse matrices of the 11 major industries, which is the direct and indirect effect of a one-peso change in final demand for a particular industry on the output of other industries and the economy as a whole. The sums of column elements of the inverse matrix for the 11 industries are called final demand-tooutput multipliers. The Manufacturing Industry yields the largest output multiplier of 2. 15 among the 11 major industries. Of its 2. 15 multiplier, the additional output generated in the Manufacturing itself for a peso change in the final demand for Manufacturing Industry is 1. 0; an additional output of 0. 19 in the Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry Industry; and an additional generated output of 0. 13 in the Trade Industry. The Construction Sector, which constitutes the second most important output generating industry, has a multiplier of 1. 93. This shows that a peso change in the final demand for the Construction Industry generates 1. 93 pesos worth of additi onal or incremental output in the economy. Moreover, of this total multiplier, a peso change in the final demand for the Construction Industry generates an additional output of 1. 00, 0. 53 and 0. 0 in the Construction, Manufacturing and in the Transportation, Communication and Storage industries, respectively. 9 Table 4. Final Demand-to-Output Impact Multipliers Code 01 02 03 04 05 06 01 1. 109499 0. 045780 0. 195436 0. 066634 0. 030540 0. 073292 02 0. 013579 1. 033373 0. 084080 0. 055157 0. 086973 0. 031180 03 0. 241695 0. 342875 1. 605913 0. 536138 0. 238312 0. 582694 04 0. 001967 0. 013762 0. 002122 1. 007377 0. 002711 0. 002136 05 0. 018788 0. 073066 0. 045204 0. 021301 1. 095046 0. 023748 06 0. 011616 0. 026676 0. 031898 0. 108802 0. 020999 1. 041957 07 0. 028925 0. 037978 0. 131903 0. 058128 0. 042323 0. 059100 08 0. 13211 0. 025827 0. 020688 0. 028335 0. 008581 0. 042086 09 0. 001723 0. 004155 0. 004100 0. 010400 0. 001524 0. 012501 10 0. 025690 0. 099276 0. 031620 0. 045409 0. 040440 0. 068940 11 Total 1. 466693 1. 702768 2. 152964 1. 937681 1. 567449 1. 937634 Source: Input-Output Accounts of the Philippines 2000, NSCB. 07 0. 058268 0. 023337 0. 313948 0. 001075 0. 016836 0. 125663 1. 029063 0. 043095 0. 009477 0. 038087 1. 658849 08 0. 034172 0. 014104 0. 235991 0. 004210 0. 029420 0. 069130 0. 023819 1. 011000 0. 037840 0. 194950 1. 654636 09 0. 009747 0. 004625 0. 069402 0. 008938 0. 005641 0. 008494 0. 007558 0. 034009 1. 002549 0. 46345 1. 197308 10 0. 091426 0. 028537 0. 491699 0. 000990 0. 049594 0. 030003 0. 053011 0. 033758 0. 012004 1. 128216 1. 919238 11 0. 039646 0. 014503 0. 240350 0. 025834 0. 023496 0. 032847 0. 026221 0. 037171 0. 011392 0. 082168 1. 000000 1. 533628 10 6. 3 Output-to-Output Multiplier Effect In many instances, the impact on the economy comes from a change in output instead of a change in final demand. In this case, an output-to-output multiplier analysis is required. This gives us information that a one-peso or one-u nit change in the industry’s output will generate pesos worth of additional/incremental output in the economy. Table 5 shows the individual and total effects of a one-peso change in the output of a particular industry. Out of the 1. 92 multiplier for the Construction, the Construction, Manufacturing and the Transportation, Communication and Storage industries generated additional outputs of 1. 0, 0. 53, and 0. 10 respectively, for every peso change in the Construction output. 11 Table 5. Output-to-Output Impact Multipliers Code 01 02 03 04 01 1. 000000 0. 044302 0. 121698 0. 066146 02 0. 012239 1. 000000 0. 052357 0. 054753 03 0. 217842 0. 331802 1. 000000 0. 532212 04 0. 001773 0. 013318 0. 001321 1. 000000 05 0. 16934 0. 070706 0. 028148 0. 021145 06 0. 010470 0. 025814 0. 019863 0. 108005 07 0. 026070 0. 036751 0. 082136 0. 057702 08 0. 011907 0. 024993 0. 012882 0. 028128 09 0. 001553 0. 004021 0. 002553 0. 010324 10 0. 023155 0. 096070 0. 019690 0. 045076 11 Total 1. 321942 1. 647777 1. 340648 1. 923491 05 0. 027889 0. 079424 0. 217627 0. 002476 1. 000000 0. 019176 0. 038650 0. 007836 0. 001392 0. 036930 1. 431400 06 0. 070341 0. 029924 0. 559230 0. 002050 0. 022792 1. 000000 0. 056720 0. 040391 0. 011998 0. 066164 1. 859610 07 0. 056622 0. 022678 0. 305081 0. 001045 0. 016361 0. 122114 1. 000000 0. 041878 0. 09209 0. 037011 1. 611999 08 0. 033800 0. 013951 0. 233423 0. 004164 0. 029100 0. 068378 0. 023560 1. 000000 0. 037428 0. 192829 1. 636633 09 0. 009722 0. 004613 0. 069226 0. 008915 0. 005627 0. 008472 0. 007539 0. 033923 1. 000000 0. 046227 1. 194264 10 0. 081036 0. 025294 0. 435820 0. 000877 0. 043958 0. 026593 0. 046987 0. 029922 0. 010640 1. 000000 1. 701126 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 12 6. 4 Household Income Multiplier Effect Moreover, changes in an industry’s output can impact on household income. To quantitavely determine the impact of changes in each industry’s output on household income, a household income ultiplier analysis is needed. This tells us about the additional household income in the whole economy due to a one-peso or one-unit cha nge in final demand for each industry. Table 6 shows the individual and total effect of a one-peso change in the final demand for each major industry. Private Services Industry is found to be the most important income generating sector with the highest income multiplier of 0. 39. This means that a peso increase in final demand of private services implies an increase in household income by 0. 39. For individual effects, additional household income of 0. 29, 0. 02 and 0. 4 are generated in the Private Services itself, Manufacturing, and the Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry respectively, due to a one-peso change in the final demand for Private Services. 13 Table 6. Household Income Multipliers. Code 01 02 03 04 01 0. 293397 0. 012106 0. 051681 0. 017621 02 0. 001810 0. 137770 0. 011210 0. 007354 03 0. 023844 0. 033825 0. 158427 0. 052891 04 0. 000478 0. 003347 0. 000516 0. 244972 05 0. 002275 0. 008849 0. 005475 0. 002580 06 0. 001532 0. 003519 0. 004207 0. 014351 07 0. 005075 0. 0066 64 0. 023145 0. 010200 08 0. 001846 0. 003608 0. 002890 0. 003959 09 0. 000043 0. 000104 0. 000102 0. 00259 10 0. 006621 0. 025587 0. 008150 0. 011704 11 Total 0. 336922 0. 235379 0. 265802 0. 365889 05 0. 008076 0. 011595 0. 023510 0. 000659 0. 132620 0. 002770 0. 007426 0. 001199 0. 000038 0. 010423 0. 198316 06 0. 019381 0. 004157 0. 057484 0. 000519 0. 002876 0. 137434 0. 010370 0. 005880 0. 000312 0. 017768 0. 256182 07 0. 015408 0. 003111 0. 030972 0. 000261 0. 002039 0. 016575 0. 180568 0. 006021 0. 000236 0. 009816 0. 265008 08 0. 009036 0. 001880 0. 023281 0. 001024 0. 003563 0. 009118 0. 004179 0. 141245 0. 000943 0. 050246 0. 244516 09 0. 002578 0. 000617 0. 006847 0. 002174 0. 000683 0. 001120 0. 001326 0. 04751 0. 024990 0. 011945 0. 057030 10 0. 024177 0. 003805 0. 048507 0. 000241 0. 006006 0. 003957 0. 009302 0. 004716 0. 000299 0. 290783 0. 391793 11 0. 010484 0. 001934 0. 023711 0. 006282 0. 002846 0. 004333 0. 004601 0. 005193 0. 000284 0. 021178 0. 080845 14 6. 5 Employment Multiplier Effect Changes in every industry’s output can impact on employment. To quantitavely determine the impact changes of output in an industry on employment, an employment multiplier analysis is done. This shows us the additional/incremental employment in the whole economy due to a one-peso or one-unit change in each industry’s output. Given a 100 Billion peso increase in the investment, the number of additional employment generated can be estimated by employment multiplier. The result shows that the Private Services Industry has the highest employment multiplier effect of 572, 637 additional employment in the whole economy due to a 100 billion change in the final demand for Private Services. The second highest important sector in generating employment is the Trade (Wholesale and Retail) Industry with a multiplier effect of 504, 821 followed by the Manufacturing Industry with additional employment of 430, 785. 15 Code 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 Total Table 7. Employment Multiplier Effect Due to a 100 Billion Investment. 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 35,541 1,467 6,261 2,135 978 2,348 1,867 1,108 84,309 6,860 4,500 7,096 2,544 1,904 51,498 73,057 342,175 114,236 50,778 124,156 66,894 194 1,359 209 99,452 268 211 106 1,553 6,039 3,736 1,761 90,508 1,963 1,392 1,758 4,036 4,826 16,463 3,177 157,656 19,014 10,921 14,338 49,800 21,946 15,979 22,313 388,519 2,324 4,542 3,639 4,983 1,509 7,402 7,579 589 1,420 1,401 3,554 521 4,273 3,239 9,651 37,294 11,878 17,058 15,192 25,898 14,308 115,136 227,861 430,785 286,088 186,005 348,762 504,821 08 1,095 1,151 50,283 416 2,432 10,460 8,993 177,811 12,933 73,234 338,807 9 312 377 14,788 882 466 1,285 2,853 5,981 342,644 17,410 387,000 10 2,929 2,328 104,767 98 4,099 4,540 20,014 5,937 4,103 423,823 572,637 11 1,270 1,183 51,212 2,550 1,942 4,970 9,900 6,538 3,893 30,867 114,325 16 7. Conclusion and Recommendation This paper quantified the multipliers of the 11 major industries for the Philippine economy using in put-output technique. As the economic importance of the 11 major industries is growing among the policy makers and researchers, this study applied input-output technique to determine multipliers that will measure the significance of these industries in generating output, income and employment. The obtained multipliers showed that among major industries, the Manufacturing Industry showed the highest output multiplier; Construction Industry yielded the highest output-to-output multiplier; and Private Services Industry is found to have the highest income and employment multipliers. The results of the study will still have to be evaluated when the NSCB will release the latest I-O table. 8. Future Directions Since the study utilized a competitive type of I-O table wherein each cell element does not explicitly distinguish the domesticallyproduced from the imported, the study is bound to construct a noncompetitive or domestic type of IO table wherein the import content of each I-O transaction is netted out. After which, the Leontief inverse matrix will be re-estimated which will be used to calculate domestic multipliers for the major industries. This is important in order to be able to quantify correctly the impact of final demand on the various economic variables. 9. Appendices 9. Input-Output Analysis There are a number of methodologies developed to determine the multipliers. The most widely used approach is the input-output technique. The major strength of the input-output analysis is that it provides detailed information on the direct and indirect effects of spending on all economic measures for different industries in the 17 local economy (Loomis and Walsh, 1997). Th erefore, in order to satisfy the aforementioned objectives, the methodology employed in this paper in based on Leontief input-output techniques where structure of an economy is analyzed in terms of inter-relationships between economic sectors (e. . Miller and Blair, 1985). The inputoutput technique of a particular economy represents the flow of goods and services among its different industries for a particular time period. In the framework of the input-output technique, the relationships between economic sectors can be described in a system of linear equations where total output produced by each sector is either consumed as an intermediate input by other sector, or, sometimes internally by the producing sector itself, or, by the final demand sector, or both. The presentation of the flow of goods and services could be expressed either by physical units or in money terms. To define, let there be an economy with n-producing sectors and a final demand sector. Total output of sector i will be: Supply = Demand n Qi = ? qij + Fi j =1 (1) where Qi = gross output of industry i; qij = the sales of industry i to industry j; Fi = the final demand vector; i = 1, †¦, n. Let ij be the technical (input) coefficient which represents the amount (value) of sector i’s output needed to produce one unit (one peso) of sector j’s output; thus using the assumption of constant production coefficient, we get: a aij = qij Qi or qij = aij Q j This means that the total value of purchases of goods and services by sector j from sector i is aij Q j . Therefore, for a given target of final demand on goods and services, F, this relation defines how much each producing industry must produce in order to satisfy a particular bundle of final demand on goods and services, i. e. , Equation (1) in reduced matrix form can be written as: 18 Q = AQ + F Solving the Equation (2) can be found as: (2) (3) Q = [I ? A] F ? and [I ? A] is the total requirement matrix or mostly known as Leontief inverse matrix. ? In equation (3), Q is the output vector; I is an identity matrix The general solution of Equation (3) determines how much each industry of the economy must produce in order to satisfy a given level of final demand. It is mandatory that [I ? A] should be a equal to zero to have a unique solution in the form of [I ? A] . When ? non-singular matrix meaning that the determinant of [I ? A] does not the Leontief inverse matrix is assumed to be [I ? A]? = Z, then zij ’s stand for the elements of the Leontief inverse matrix. Each element of the Leontief inverse matrix shows the direct and indirect requirements of output sector i per unit of final demand. . 2 Output Multiplier The final demand-to-output multiplier is used to measure the impact of a change in final demand on the output of individual industries and the whole economy. This will tell us about the additional output generated in each industry given an impact increase in the investment in each industry (impact variable). An output multiplier for sector j is defined as the total value of pr oduction in all sectors of the economy that is necessary in order to satisfy a peso’s worth of final demand for sector j’s output. For the simple output multiplier, this total production is the direct and indirect output effect, obtained from a model in which households are exogenous. The initial output effect on the economy is defined to be simply the initial peso’s worth of sector j output needed to satisfy the additional final demand. Then formally, the output multiplier is the ratio of the direct and indirect effect to the initial effect alone. 19 The output multiplier measures the sum of direct and indirect output requirements from all sectors needed to deliver one additional peso of output of i industry to final demand. It is derived by summing the zij ’s or the entries in the column under industry i in the Leontief inverse matrix tables. Although the output multiplier represents total requirements per unit of final output, it is not particularly useful concept except as indicator of the degree of structural interdependence between each sector and the rest of the economy. In economic impact studies we are more usually concerned with income or employment generating effects, and these require income or employment multipliers. 9. 3 Income Multiplier Changes in an ndustry’s output can impact on household income. To quantitatively determine the impact of changes in each industry’s output on household income, a household income multiplier analysis is needed. This tells us about the additional household income in the whole economy due to a one-peso or one-unit change in final demand for each industry. The income multiplier is obtained by multiplying the row vector of income coefficient s, say e with the zij ’s, which are entries in the column under industry i in the Leontief inverse matrix tables. Row vector of income coefficients or e are referred to as salaries and wages (compensation) for each industry divided by the corresponding output. This gives us the following equation for income multiplier: ? ? I = e[I ? A] 9. 4 Employment Multiplier ? ?1 (4) Impact analyses are frequently preoccupied with employmentcreating effects of industrial expansion, because policymakers may be primarily and legitimately concerned in forecasting jobs in a particular area. For this reason, it is often useful to be able to derive not only income multipliers from an I-O model, but as well as employment multipliers. 20 The following method was used to estimate employment multipliers. The employment coefficients, l , defined as employment per million pesos of outputs, was multiplied by the zij ’s, which are entries in the column under industry i in the Leontief inverse matrix tables, in order to obtain the multiplier. Mathematically, employment multi ? plier is expressed as follows: L = l [I ? A] 10. References ? ?1 (5) Miller, Ronald E. and Blair, Peter D. Input-Output Analysis: Foundations and Extensions. Englewoods Cliffs, N. J. Prentice Hall 1985. Thijs Ten Raa. The Economics of Input-Output Analysis. Cambridge University Press 2005. National Statistical Coordination Board. The 2000 Input-Output Accounts of the Philippines. Economics Statistics Office 2000. National Statistics Office. 2000 Census of Philippine Business and Industry. Presentation Material of Dr. Cid L. Terosa, UA&P Professor. 21