Tips For Writing Better Essay Samples

Tips For Writing Better Essay SamplesHaving a student writing sample can be a powerful tool in your arsenal when it comes to writing better essays. Students are notoriously bad writers, and the easier it is for them to write better essays, the more likely they are to succeed.A test prep professor may spend hours studying test questions to see what makes students perform better in their exams. A lot of their time would be spent by using student essay samples to help them with practice test question writing. This would be one way for a teacher to make sure that they have the most effective strategies for developing good writing skills.Other students might also be at a loss when it comes to writing a writing sample. Having a free sample can help you hone your own writing skills. Although there are a number of free writing samples available online, you will find that many of them are just rehashed versions of the ones you can find in books. You may not want to copy the same essay samples over again.If you find that your essays online are not flowing well, you might consider reviewing the sources or taking a closer look at the grammar. Pay attention to the details of the sentence construction. You can spend a little time finding errors or grammatical mistakes that would be easy to fix if you try.Many college boards and colleges are now using online tests to help them to find out which students are making the grade in certain subjects. If you have taken a few writing samples in high school, you might have noticed that they are all the same.If you take a look at the essays samples available online, you will be surprised at how much of the same writing style you find in every sample. This means that if you want to find a better essay sample, it may not be a difficult task for you to find one.To get a good idea on how to improve the essay samples online, you can take a look at your online versions. It is always a good idea to make a separate list of essays samples you f ound easy, and another list that you found hard to write.

Burkitts Lymphoma Disease Essay - 3211 Words

Burkitt’s lymphoma is a very aggressive form of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma. The disease is related with Epstein-Barr virus and was one of the first tumours shown to have a chromosomal translocation. The Burkitt’s lymphoma disease is the most common childhood cancer where malaria is predominantly an epidemic. About10% of all malignant diseases in children under 15 years of age. Disease is very common in those whose immune system is not functionally efficient. With the help of intensive chemotherapy, children are in better health. On the other hand, children in third world countries are not as aggressive in treatment of Burkitt’s lymphoma. The right prognosis helps doctors evaluate the initial steps of Burkitt’s lymphoma.†¦show more content†¦(1) The observation and description of the lymphoma named after Dennis Burkitt in 1964 was a major breakthrough in virology and in cancer research. It led to the discovery that all humans carry a DNA virus tha t can transform B lymphocytes, named after its discoverers Epstein-Barr-Virus, (EBV) , this is virus which causes glandular fever; however, the virus carrying state is mostly harmless. This is due to two main aspects of the complex host-virus and host-cell and virus interactions. According to Epstein The gene expressions strategy of the virus adjusts it to various cellular environments that together with our immune response establish a finely poised balance of the virus carrying state, limiting the proliferation of the virally infected cells. Activation of the c-myc ontogeny by chromosomal translocation is the key event in this malignancy. Burkitt lymphoma was called the Rosetta Stone of EBV biology, and the stalking horse of cancer research. (2) Points discussed in the reviews touch on the history of the discoveries of the lymphoma and of the virus, the expression types of the EBV encoded proteins in cells with latent infection, the pivotal role and functional consequences of the l g/myc translocation the success of immune surveillance, and the crippling of the major apoptotic pathways. (3) TheShow MoreRelatedBurkitt s Lymphom An Uncommon Form Of Non Hodgkin Lymphoma1040 Words   |  5 PagesBurkitt’s lymphoma is an uncommon form of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. In United States, the case rate during 2001-2009 period was 0.4 cases per 100,000 population according to NCI’s SEER statistical database.1 Burkitt’s lymphoma constitutes 0.4% of all the lymphoid tumor accounting for between 40 and 50% of childhood non-Hodgkin s lymphomas (NHLs) in non-endemic areas.2-4 The sporadic form in adults accounts for 1–2% of all adult lymphomas in western Europe and the United States.5 Burkitt’s lymphomaRead MoreEpstein Barr Virus ( Ebv )1416 Words   |  6 Pagesby Sir Michael Anthony Epstein and Ms. Yvonne Barr. They located it in a Burkitt lymphoma cell line. It was the first virus to be associated with cancer. Infection of Epstein-Barr (EBV) is extremely widespread. The National Institutes of Health estimates that roughly 95% of people carry the virus. The virus was later found to cause infectious mononucleosis. Mononucleosis has since been nicknamed the â€Å"kissing disease†. Transmission is spread orally, primarily through saliva. Healthy people are ableRead MoreVictor Ambons : The Discovery Of Mirna By Victor Elegans954 Words   |  4 Pagesgastric, ovarian and prostate cancers) [40] or amplification of the miR-17-92 cluster family on chromosome 13q 31.1, which is amplified in B cell lymphoma [59, 65]. 1.10 EBV The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), a human tumor virus, was discovered by Michael Anthony Epstein, Bert Geoffrey Achong and Yvonne Barr, using biopsy material of Burkitt’s lymphoma (BL) patients in 1964 [66]. It is estimated that more than 95 % of the adult human population is seropositive for EBV infection. In the infected individualRead MoreCase Study Of DLBCA1185 Words   |  5 PagesDiscussion Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is the fifth most common cancer type, worldwide. DLBCL is the most common form of NHL [104, 105]. DLBCL is a heterogeneous group of disease, in regards to pathology and clinical genetics characteristics. The heterogeneity arise, due to dysregulation in different stage of B-cell development, regulated by different transcription factors such as B-cell lymphoma 6 (BCL-6)[106-108]. Due to this clinical and biological diversity, DLBCL is categorized into two commonRead MoreDevelopment of a Lab-on-a-Chip Device to Detect DNA Double Strand Breaks in Situ793 Words   |  3 Pagescellular survival and function particularly in the case of erroneous DNA repair mechanisms. Indeed, many cancers bear oncogenic rearrangements, loss and/or amplification of genetic material. For example, the underlying cause of most cases of Burkitt’s lymphoma is a rearrangement involving the c-MYC gene, a proto-oncogene[2]. Therefore, accumulation of DSBs and/or defective DNA repair system is a major threat and its detection can bring large value in the prediction of carcinogenesis. Current technologiesRead MoreViruses : A Small Organisms And Most Viruses Essay2092 Words   |  9 Pagesdamage the DNA within the cells causing them to result into cancer and alter the immune system, so that it is less able to fight off cancer cells (Fayed). According to The National Cancer Institute, cancer is the name given to a collection of related diseases. In all types of cancer, some of the body’s cells begin to divide without stopping and spread into surrounding tissues. Cancer can start almost anywhere in the human body, which is made up of trillions of cells. Normally, human cells grow and divideRead MorePrevention Of Aids Related Lymphoma2833 Words   |  12 Pages AIDS-related lymphoma is a broad term for a group of blood cancers that, as its name implies, affects AIDS patients. There are various types of non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHLs) that this category encompasses, so it is not as clear-cut as one might imagine. AIDS-related lymphoma is a very complex disease with many factors to consider. It is important to understand the origin of AIDS-related lymphoma. According to the article â€Å"AIDS-Related Malignancies,† AIDS-related lymphoma is believed to be causedRead MoreIdentify And Describe Three Groups Of Low G + C Gram Positive Bacteria1579 Words   |  7 PagesIdentify and describe three groups of low G+C Gram-positive bacteria. Clostridia: rod-shaped, obligate anaerobes, some form endospores, produce potent toxins that cause a variety of diseases in humans. Important in medicine industry (Botox oral plaque). Examples of clostridia include C. tetani (cause tetanus), C. perfringens ( causes gangrene), C. botulinum ( causes botulism) and C. difficle (severe diarrhea). Microbes related to Clostridium include: Epulopiscium - a giant bacterium that canRead MoreThe Sequence Of Target Messenger Rna1604 Words   |  7 Pagesof the activities of all protein-coding genes in mammals are controlled by miRNAs and greatly contributes to cell-type specific profiles of protein expression (Bader and Lammers, 2009). MiRNA are extensively involved in various human pathogenic diseases including cancer and its widespread has opened a new opportunity for the study and development of new therapeutic strategies (Gray, 2015). There are two strategies that are involved in miRNA-based therapeutics: miRNA antagonists, which is also referredRead MoreNon-Hodgkins Lymphoma5500 Words   |  22 PagesNon-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Introduction According to the American Cancer Society website, Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (also known as non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, Non-Hodgkin’s disease, NHL, or sometimes just lymphoma) is a cancer that starts in the cells of the lymph system, which is part of the body’s immune system.1 It is a type of cancer of the blood that affects the white blood cells, which are usually involved in protecting against infections. NHL is not a single disease, but rather a group of at least 31

Movie Review Ma Vie En Rose - 1888 Words

Section I: Summary The French-Belgian film (the director was Belgian) Ma Vie En Rose (My Life in Pink) is a story set in France about a family of six (Mom - Hanna, Dad - Pierre, three sons (Ludovic being the youngest, and Daughter) in which the 7 year old son, Ludovic (Ludo for short), has a gender identity disorder. Ludo thinks hes a girl and God mistakenly made him a boy when his second X chromosome didnt go down the chimney. He attempts to correct this mistake by dressing like and acting like a girl. At first, Ludos parents find his behavior humorous. However, after repeated incidents of girlish behavior - including dressing up like a girl and pretending to marry his best friend, Jerome - his parents start to think theres a†¦show more content†¦- Ludo admits to his mother that hes going to marry Jerome when hes not a boy. - Ludo tells his therapist that hes a girlboy. - Ludo attempts to prove to Jerome that hes a girlboy by peeing while sitting down. - Ludo tells his sister that he will have his period. A (2) Preference for cross-dressing or simulating female attire - During a school play of Snow White, Ludo locks Sophie (who plays Snow White) in the bathroom, puts on her Snow White dress, and plays Snow White in the play. - Ludo wears a skirt to Sophies birthday party. - At Ludos parents housewarming party, Ludo attends the party in drag. - Ludo wears Jeromes dead sisters dress when hes over at his house. - Ludo is seen in the kitchen wearing his shorts backwards (like a woman would). - At Christines birthday party at the end of the movie, Ludo is asked by Christine to wear her dress. He considers it. But upon realizing how his parents would feel, he declines. A (3) Strong and persistent preferences for cross-sex roles in make-believe play or persistent fantasies of being another sex - After Ludo drinks the glass of champagne he goes with his grandmother, falls asleep, and dreams of being the bride at a wedding. - Ludo went up the billboardShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Article On Views Of Race And Inequality, Blacks And Whites Are Worlds Apart2021 Words   |  9 Pagesway I would react but making a point to mention my race. I think this might be more of a fault on my lack of creativity than the structure of the voice journals. 4. How did the Social Review or Service Learning paper help you critically understand a cultural event or a situation? Before doing the Social Review project on Human Trafficking, I did not know a lot about the subject but I was interested in learning more. Because of this, I had to do a lot of research for both my paper and presentationRead MoreMetz Film Language a Semiotics of the Cinema PDF100902 Words   |  316 Pagesconstruction to translate construction en abà ®me, to describe embedded narrative structures like a film within a film. This is not really very accurate but I have not found any solution better than embedded structure; see his explanation on page 230. Single shot sequence is usually used to translate plan sequence rather than shot sequence. Simi ´ xi x A NOTE ON THE TRANSLATION larly dolly in and dolly out are used rather than forward and rear. Mise en scà ¨ne is also retained in its filmicRead MoreReed Supermarket Case32354 Words   |  130 Pagessauer-danfoss.com Video case study 6.3 Debate on globalization (15.44) No website available Chapter 7 The sociocultural environment Case study 7.1 Lifan A Chinese sub-supplier and brand manufacturer of motacycles is aiming at the global market www.lifan.com/en Case study 7.2 IKEA catalogue Are there any cultural differences? www.ikea.com Video case study 7.3 Communicating in the global world No website available Chapter 8 The international market selection process Case study 8.1 Tata Nano International marketRead MoreProject Managment Case Studies214937 Words   |  860 Pages107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the We b at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011,

Marijuana Reform Essay Example For Students

Marijuana Reform Essay According to government figures, nearly 70 million Americans have smokedmarijuana at some time in their lives. 18 million have smoked marijuana within the lastyear, and ten million are regular smokers. Almost all of the people arrested for marijuanaare arrested for possession. And because of harsh federal and state penalties, these peoplemay be sentenced to lengthy jail terms. This is an abuse of drug laws in a great nation. Themarijuana laws need to be reformed, and the war against marijuana rethought. One reason these laws need to be rethought is for medicinal purposes. Most peoplethink marijuana is a dangerous drug that can kill. This is true if taken in heavy doses butthats also true for aspirin, alcohol and ibuprofen, which are all largely legal. Doctors havediscovered that under controlled and medical supervision, marijuana has is one of the safesttherapeutically active substances known to man says Dr. Grinspoon, at the University ofFlorida. This is just one reason why it should be allowed for medical purposes. Marijuanahas been proven to help cancer patients recover from the results of chemotherapy. Sometimes these results of chemo are so great that cancer patients cant continue with theprocedure and walk away from it. Marijuana has also been used successfully to help people with anorexia. It has given these people appetites and in some cases almostcompletely cured them. And another medical use for it is glaucoma. Marijuana has beenknown to help glaucoma sufferers greatly and to enhance their lives. Although marijuanahas all these positive qualities that dont seem to have bad side effects, federal law allowsphysicians to prescribe far more dangerous drugs to patients. And yet refuses marijuana into themedical field. Another reason to reform the marijuana laws is to help our country socially and economically. America spent 20 billion dollars on the anti-drug budget last year, and thegovernments own research says that drugs, including marijuana, are more cheap, pure and available than before. This large amount of money that comes out of taxpayers pocketscould be used for more usef ul things like schools, roads, and cancer research. Over half amillion people in our nations jails are in there on drug charges, 53% being charged formarijuana possession. These overcrowded jails could be holding much more seriouscriminals. It takes 23,000 dollars to hold each prisoner in jail for one year, which is alsovery costly to America. Marijuana offenders can loose their drivers license, their occupationallicenses, loss of child custody, loss of federal benefits and even face removal from publichousing. They can even lose their cars, cash, boats, land, and houses. Another reason for marijuana reform is because the laws dont work. Theprohibition against marijuana hasnt stopped marijuana use by teens, or anyone else. Research has been done on high school seniors in decriminalized states compared to stateswith marijuana penalties since the mid 1970s. These studies show that decriminalizationhas had virtually no effect on marijuana use. Another thing to think about is: Why is thiscountry trying to end marijuana use when studies show that the prohibition is bringingcrime with it? If laws were reformed, the black market would disappear and manymarijuana dealers would surface overnight. International studies also indicate that ifmarijuana laws were to be removed crime actually declines instead of increasing. Anotherthing is that casualties from marijuana are very rare. In fact, deaths from all illegal drugs isless then 20,000 annually. Compared to 450,000 people who die from alcohol andtobacco, this is a tiny number. Should alcohol and tobacco be prohibited? Of course not,that would bring utter chaos. The Netherlands are a living model to solve the marijuanaproblem America today. Since 1976 marijuana possession has been allowed by thegovernment of the Netherlands. Investigations show that marijuana use or crime relatingto marijuana hasnt gone up. Who is to question that the same wouldnt happen here?Overall, the marijuana laws need to be rethought and the fight opposing marijuananeeds to end. There are many important reasons that for this, including the medicinal usefor marijuana, improving crime rates, and superior budget spending for the country. Also, illegal drug use would go down and the policemen and law enforcers could spend moretime on serious criminals. The nations jails would be much less crowded and money on theprisoners could be used elsewhere. Its not crazy to think that if America followed theNetherlands and other countries footsteps, our country would be a better place. .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc , .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc .postImageUrl , .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc , .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc:hover , .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc:visited , .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc:active { border:0!important; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc:active , .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua94e1fe65c8e71243f4068a84d953dcc:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Rosa Parks EssayWords/ Pages : 734 / 24

Media Planning Essay Example

Media Planning Essay â€Å"Whoever controls the media controls the culture. † – ALLEN GINSBERG, POET â€Å"Information is the oxygen of the modern age. † – RONALD REAGAN, US PRESIDENT Media Today â€Å"Your TV is ringing. † Maybe you saw the Verizon ad that shows a cellphone with a TV attached to it—pointing out that you can talk on the phone and watch TV at the same time, on one piece of equipment. If you saw it, you might have said, â€Å"cool,† or â€Å"I want that,† or â€Å"what a ridiculous thing to do. † But Verizon could have gone further. The ad could have pointed out that some of the company’s cellphones also let you watch movies, play video games, download and listen to music, and read a newspaper or magazine. It’s an exciting time to study mass communication. None of the activities described above could have been attempted on a cellphone (call it a mobile device) just a few years ago. They raise questions about the impact that these and other technologies will have on us, our society, and the content of TV, movies, video games, music, newspapers, magazines, and movie companies. In fact, the transformations are so great that you have the opportunity to know more than conventional experts, to challenge traditional thinking, and to encourage fresh public discussions about media and society. Consider the mass media menu that Americans have today. Instead of three or four TV channels, most Americans receive more than fifty and a substantial number receive one hundred and fifty and more. Radio in urban areas delivers dozens of stations; satellite radio brings in hundreds more, and music streaming on the Web—sometimes called Internet radio—is carried out by countless broadcast and non-broadcast entities. We will write a custom essay sample on Media Planning specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Media Planning specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Media Planning specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The advent of home computers, VCRs, CD players, DVDs, and DBS has brought far more channels of sights and sounds into people’s lives than ever before. So has the Internet and the World Wide Web, the computer network that Americans use to interact with information, news and entertainment from all over the nation and the world. Research indicates that Americans typically spend an enormous amount of time with mass media. 1 Think about your own media habits. How close do you come to the average 32 hours a week (about 4. hours a day) of television that Americans view on the traditional TV set as well as online? What about radio? Studies suggest that Americans listen to around 15 hours a week of radio in the regular broadcast mode, via satellite channels or from their online feeds. Do you do that, or do you instead listen to recorded music on your iPod or on your MP3 or CD player? Studies show that Americans spend an average of about 3. 5 hours a week with recorded music, but colleg e students undoubtedly do more of it. And what about your time reading books, newspapers and magazines? Data show that on average Americans spend about 8 hours a week with one or another of these, both their printed versions and their websites. Just a few years ago, media such as television, radio, books and newspapers seemed pretty separate. It was clear what content from each medium looked or sounded like, and it would have been foolish to suggest that newspaper articles and television programs would show up on the same channel. Today, with the rise of new computer technologies that we will explain in the coming pages, this â€Å"foolishness† is exactly what has happened. The access people have on the Internet to content from different types of media is part of a process called convergence. Convergence takes place when content that has traditionally been confined to one medium appears on multiple media channels. The media of mass communication, then, are an integral part of our lives, occurring in a wide variety of settings. In this chapter, we will explore and define communication, media, and culture, and we will consider how the relationships among them affect us and the world in which we live. We will also consider why the term mass communication remains relevant in the twenty-first century, contrary to what some writers say. In fact, the changes taking place in the media system actually make a rethought and redefined version of the term more important than ever. U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A Varieties of Communication onvergence when content that has traditionally been confined to one medium appears on multiple media channels audience fragmentation the process of dividing audience members into segments based on background and lifestyle in order to send them messages targeted to their specific characteristics mass production process the industrial process that creates the potential for reaching millions, even billions, of diverse, anonymous people at around the same time industrial nature what distinguishes mass communication from other forms of communication is the industrialized—or mass production—process that is involved in creating the message material. This industrial process creates the potential for reaching billions of diverse, anonymous people simultaneously. The traditional notion of the audience as a large mass of anonymous individuals has given way beneath the fragmenting of audiences to reveal smaller, specially targeted media audiences made up of individuals who are segmented by any number of characteristics. To understand why some writers suggest that the term mass communication doesn’t connect to what’s going on in today’s world, we have to look at how the term has traditionally been used. Over the past one hundred years, people who wrote about mass communication tended to relate it to the size of the audience. That made a lot of sense back then. From the mid-nineteenth century onward, new technologies such as high-speed newspaper presses, radio, movies, and television provided access to the huge â€Å"masses† of people. Not only were those audiences very large, they were dispersed geographically, quite diverse (that is, made up of different types of people), and typically anonymous to the companies that created the material. The essential reason newspapers, radio, television, and other such media were considered different from other means of communication had to do with the size and composition of the audience. This perspective on mass communication worked very well until the past couple of decades when the key aspects of the traditional definition of mass communication as reaching huge, diverse groups no longer fit. The reason is that the arrival of media channels—including the growing number of radio and TV stations, the rise of the VCR, the multiplication of cable networks, and the rise of the Web— led to audience fragmentation (see Figure 1. 1). That is, as people watched or read these new channels, there were fewer people using any one of them. Because these new media channels do not necessarily individually reach large numbers of people—the â€Å"masses†Ã¢â‚¬â€some writers suggested that we can abandon the term mass communication. However, the view in this book is that mass communication is still a critically important part of society. In our view, what really separates mass communication from other forms of communication is not the size of the audience—it can be large or small. Rather, what makes mass communication special is the way the content of the communication message is created. Mass communication is carried out by organizations working together in industries to produce and circulate a wide range of content—from entertainment to news to educational materials. It is this industrial, mass production process that creates the potential for reaching millions, even billions, of diverse, anonymous people at around the same time (say, through televising the Olympic games). And it is the industrial nature of the process—for example, the various companies that work together within the television or Internet industries—that makes mass communication different from other forms of communication even when 6 U N D E R S T A N D I N G M A S S M E D I A Figure 1. 1 Audience Fragmentation The arrival of the diverse Media channel A array of media channels has had a fragmenting effect on audiences—as audience members move to watch, read, or listen to a new channel, fewer people use any single channel. Media channel B Media channel E Media channel C Media channel F Media channel D C Media channel G C the audience is relatively small and even one-to-one. To help you understand how mass communication relates to other forms of communication, let’s take a closer look. Communication Defined Different types of communication are a basic feature of human life. In general, the word communication refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties involved understands as messages. What are messages? Messages are collections of symbols that appear purposefully organized (meaningful) to those sending or receiving them. Think about the many ways that you signal to others what you want to do or how much you care about them. The signals are often verbal but they can also be through body language. When Jane shouts excitedly to her friend Jack and leaps with joy into his arms after she wins a tennis match, that’s a form of communication. It’s likely that Jack, whose arms she almost broke, realizes that she wants to tell him something. People who study communication would typically call the interaction just described interpersonal communication, a form that involves two or three individuals signaling to each other using their voices, facial and hand gestures, and other signs (even clothes) that they use to convey meaning. When you talk to your parents about your coursework, discuss a recent movie over dinner with friends, or converse with your professor during her office hours, you are participating in the interpersonal form of communication. ommunication refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties involved understands as messages messages collections of symbols that appear purposefully organized (meaningful) to those sending or receiving them interpersonal communication a form of communication that involves two or three individuals signaling to each other using their voices, facial, and hand gestures, and other signs (even clothes) that they use to convey meaning 7 U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A Mediated Interpersonal Communication Breakdown When tragedy strikes, it is not unusual for people to lose their sense of security in the world—at least temporarily. Yet large-scale crises may also prompt people to lose faith in the communication systems that they have come to depend on for information. During the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, many media channels were inaccessible. Phone lines were jammed for hours, and some local radio and television stations were knocked off the air. In addition, a number of websites crashed while others failed to provide information about the attacks, leading one reporter to declare that â€Å"the Internet failed miserably. † In 2007 during the shooting rampage at Virginia Tech, dis, cussions resurfaced about communication during crises. This time, however, the focus was not on the technology but on the way people were using it, particularly new media formats such as mobile devices, blogs, and social networking sites. C U L T U R E T O D A Y As the attacks unfolded, many students used their Facebook and MySpace pages to let family and friends know they were okay. In fact, science reporter Alan Boyle remarked that â€Å"the media methods employed during [the] crisis broke new ground—and undoubtedly saved lives in the process. Others, meanwhile, questioned why Virginia Tech authorities did not take advantage of communication technologies to immediately alert members of the campus community that they were in danger. Andrew Kantor, a technology reporter for USA Today, saw this event and its aftermath as evidence that people have yet to adapt fully to new types of communication. Sources: Alan Boyle, â€Å"How Smart Mobs Coped with a Massacre, † MSNBC, accessed on 6/11/07, http://www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/18184075/; Andrew Kantor, â€Å"Virginia Tech Tragedy Highlights Differences between Old, New Media, USA Today, accessed on † 6/11/07, www. usatoday. com; Jen Muehlbauer, â€Å"Reporting the Unthinkable, The Industry Standard’s Media Grok, accessed on † 9/12/01, http://www. nettime. rg/Lists-Archives/nettime-bold-0109/ msg00273. html. mediated interpersonal communication a specialized type of interpersonal communication that is assisted by a device, such as a pen or pencil, a computer, or a telephone intrapersonal communication an individual â€Å"talking† to himself or herself small group communication communication among three or more individuals organizational communication the interactions of individuals in a formal working environment Mediated interpersonal communication, which is a specialized type of interpersonal communication, can be described as interpersonal communication that is assisted by a device, such as a pen, a computer, or a telephone. When you write a thank you note to your grandmother, send an email to your graduate teaching assistant, or call a friend on the phone, you are participating in the mediated form of interpersonal communication. In this form of communication, the people you are interacting with can’t touch you and you can’t touch them. You might even be thousands of miles from each other. The technology—the pen and paper, the computer, the telephone—becomes the vehicle (the medium) that allows you to interact with them. Communication scholars also differentiate among other forms of communication. Some write about intrapersonal communication, which involves an individual â€Å"talking† to himself or herself—for example, an internal â€Å"conversation† that weighs the pros and cons of a decision. Other researchers write about small group communication, organizational communication, or public communication. Small group communication involves communication among three or more individuals. Think of the deliberations of five friends who get together to plan a ski trip. Organizational communication involves the interaction of individuals in a formal working environment. When an executive sends messages down the chain of command, this is a form of orga- 8 U N D E R S T A N D I N G M A S S M E D I A nizational communication. Public communication involves one person who speaks to a large number of people—for instance, a professor speaking to students, or a candidate for public office talking to a crowd at a rally. Note that hese forms of communication can each take place interpersonally or they can be mediated. A group planning a ski group can meet face-to-face or can interact through email. The boss could talk to her department heads in her office, or leave a message on their phone mail system. A professor can talk in front of the class, or leave a video of himself or herself for the students to watch. While the types of communication described above have their differences, they have a central similarity: they involve messages. Seven major elements are involved in every interaction that involves messages. These elements are the source, encoder, transmitter, channel, decoder, receiver, and feedback. Let’s take them one at a time. In communication, the source is the originator of a message. public communication one person who speaks to a large number of people Source The source is the originator of the message. The source may be a person (when Jane speaks to Jack), or several people (a choir singing). But the source can also be an organization. For example, suppose you receive a notice in your mailbox from your bank. While individuals who work there created and sent the notice, from your standpoint, â€Å"the bank† was the source of the message. The source may or may not have knowledge about the intended receiver of the message, but it does have a thought or idea to transmit to some other person or organization. Encoding Encoding is the process by which the source translates the thoughts and ideas so that they can be perceived by the human senses—these are primarily sight and sound, but may also include smell, taste, and touch. A source creates or encodes a message in anticipation of its transmission to a receiver. When the source is an individual, the encoding goes on in the individual’s brain. When the source is an organization, encoding takes place when people in the organization create messages. Transmitting The transmitter performs the physical activity of actually sending out the message. Picture an employee apologizing to a supervisor for taking an unauthorized day off from work. The employee’s vocal cords and face muscles— in fact, his entire body—will be involved in the transmission of the words, tone, and physical movements that the supervisor standing in front of him will understand as meaningful. Now, picture this same employee apologizing to his supervisor, not in person, but over the phone. In this case, a second type of transmitter operates along with the vocal cords. That second transmitter is the telephone, which turns sound waves from the vocal cords into electrical impulses that can travel across the phone lines. The telephone is an example of a mediating technology, or medium, of communication. A medium is part of a technical system that helps in the transmission, ource the originator of the message which may be a person, several people or an organization encoding the process by which the source translates the thoughts and ideas so that they can be perceived by the human senses— primarily sight and sound, but may also include smell, taste, and touch transmitter performs the physical activity of distributing the message medium part of a technical system that helps in the transmission, distribution, or reception of messages 9 U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A 1 The source encodes a message using the brain and transmits it through the air waves (a medium) using parts of the body (vocal cords, facial muscles). 2 The receiver hears the source’s voice, decodes the message using the senses, and prepares to encode an answer. This process of responding is called interpersonal feedback. The message travels through the air (the channel ) to reach the other person (the receiver ). 6 The former source is now the receiver. The receiver decodes the message and prepares to encode an answer (more interpersonal feedback ). In this way the interpersonal communication episode continues. 5 4 The receiver encodes a response using the brain and transmits it (the feedback) using pa rts of the body. When transmitting, the receiver becomes a source. The message travels through the air (the channel ) to reach the other person. Figure 1. 2 A Model of Interpersonal Communication In this model of interpersonal communication, information moves from a starting point at the source, through the transmitter, via the channel, to the receiver for decoding. channels the pathways through which the transmitter sends all features of the message, whether they involve sight, sound, smell, or touch distribution, or reception of messages. It helps communication take place when senders and receivers are not face-to-face. The Internet is an example of a medium, as are the radio, CD, television, and DVD. (Note that the term medium is singular; it refers to one technological vehicle for communication. The plural is media. ) Channel All communication, whether mediated or not, takes place through channels. Channels are the pathways through which the transmitter sends all features of the message, whether they involve sight, sound, smell, or touch. When a man on the street walks up to you and shouts at you in a way that you can hardly understand, the channel is the air through which the sound waves move from the man’s vocal cords. If your roommate yells at you through the phone, two channels are at work: one channel is the air that vibrates the phone mechanism, and the other is the wire through which the electrical impulses move toward you. Decoding Before a receiver can hear (and make sense of) a source’s message, the transmitted impulses must be converted to signs that the brain can perceive as meaningful. Decoding is the way in which this is done. It is the reverse of the encoding process—it is the process by which the receiver translates the source’s thoughts and ideas so that they have meaning. In the case of the interpersonal communication, the decoder is biological: the brain is the decoder. When the telephone is involved, the electrical impulses that traveled through the phone lines must be decoded into sound waves before they can be decoded by the brain. In fact, all media require this sort of decoding. When you play music on an MP3 player or iPod, it decodes the impulses that have been laid down on the disk so that you can hear the tunes. Similarly, the television is the decoding the process by which the receiver translates the source’s thoughts and ideas so that they have meaning 10 U N D E R S T A N D I N G M A S S M E D I A The source (a person) encodes a message using the brain and transmits it through the telephone (a medium) using parts of the body (vocal cords, facial muscles). The phone enco des the message as electrical signals. 2 The message travels through the air, phone, and phone lines (the media channels) to reach the other person (the receiver). 3 The phone (a receiver medium) rings. A human receiver (a person) answers the phone. The phone decodes the electrical transmission into sound, and the human receiver decodes the human source’s message using the senses and prepares to encode an answer. This process of responding is called interpersonal feedback. 6 The former source is now the receiver. The receiver (a person) decodes the message and prepares to encode an answer (more interpersonal feedback). In this way the mediated interpersonal communication episode continues. 5 4 The receiver (a person) encodes a response using the brain and transmits it (the feedback) using parts of the body and the phone. When transmitting, the receiver becomes a source. The message travels through the air, phone, and phone lines (the media channels) to reach the other person. Figure 1. 3 decoder that takes the electrical impulses from the air or cable and converts them into the programs you watch. A Model of Mediated Interpersonal Communication In this model of mediated interpersonal communication, information moves from a starting point to a source, who encodes a message. The message is transmitted through channels to the receiver, who decodes the message. receiver the person or organization that gets the message feedback when the receiver responds to the message with what the sender perceives as a message Receiver As suggested above, the receiver is the person or organization that gets the message. Sometimes the source’s message will reach its intended receiver; sometimes it reaches another receiver altogether. But even if someone other than the intended receiver receives the message, communication has still taken place. Say, for example, that you assume that your friend Brad is in the next room and, as a result, you shout your opinion about his new girlfriend, Keiko. Even if it turns out that Brad wasn’t in the next room at all and did not hear (receive) the message you sent him, but instead his girlfriend, Keiko, was in the next room, the episode can still be considered interpersonal communication: your message was encoded, transmitted via your vocal cords, sent through the channel of the air, decoded by the receiver (although not the one you intended), and received. Feedback Feedback occurs when the receiver responds to the message with what the sender perceives as a message. When Keiko, your friend’s girlfriend, tells you, â€Å"I never knew you felt that way about me, you jerk,† that is feedback. In fact, this sort of feedback continues the interpersonal communication process. As Figure 1. shows, two people continue their communication by continually receiving and responding to each other’s messages. The same thing happens with mediated interpersonal communication, as shown in Figure 1. 3. The communication â€Å" episode† 11 U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A between the two ends when one of them sends no more feedback to the other (the person walks away, the parties hang up the phone). Feedback doesn’t always take place immediately, especially in mediated interpersonal communication. Say you send your friend an email. Keiko reads it, gets embarrassed by something you wrote and decides to write you a reply. You read the note and then, after thinking about it for a day, write back directly to her. Her email and your response are examples of delayed feedback. noise is an environmental, mechanical, and semantic sound in the communication situation that interferes with the delivery of the message. Environmental noise comes from the setting where the source and receiver are communicating. Mechanical noise comes from the medium through which the communication is taking place. Semantic noise involves language that one or more of the participants doesn’t understand. Noise Noise is an environmental, mechanical, and semantic sound in the communication situation that interferes with the delivery of the message. Environmental noise comes from the setting where the source and receiver are communicating. In an interpersonal communication situation, Ahmed, the source, may be at a cricket match trying to talk on the phone, and Sally, the receiver, might be at an auction where people are screaming bids. Mechanical noise comes from the medium through which the communication is taking place. Say there is static on the phone—that would be mechanical noise that would add to the environmental noise. Semantic noise involves language that one or more of the participants doesn’t understand. Let’s say Ahmed tells Sally that â€Å"the bowler attempted a bouncer that turned into a beamer. † Even when Ahmed repeats the words three times through the environmental and mechanical noise so that she hears them, Sally has no idea what Ahmed is talking about, since she knows little about the sport of cricket. From Communication to Mass Communication One way to understand mass communication is to show its similarities to and differences from other forms of communication. One similarity is that mass communication takes place through media. Small groups can come together in virtual chat rooms that are connected by wired networks, organizations can connect their far-flung employees via video conference facilities that are linked through cables and satellites, and professors who deliver public lectures can record them for projection from a computer server to different classes at different times. In other words, the channels used in mediated forms of interpersonal, group, organizational and public communication are sometimes similar to those used in mass communication. Yet another similarity between these other forms of communication and mass communication is that we can describe mass communication using the same terms of source, encoder, transmitter, channel, decoder, receiver, feedback, and noise that are shown in Table 1. 1. But here is also where we begin to see differences. The most important differences relate to the source of the message, its transmitter and the way feedback takes place. Differences in the Source In the other forms of communication we’ve discussed, individuals are the source of the message that scholars study. In mass communication, by contrast, complex organizations, often companies, take responsibility for the activity. The source is an organization such as a company, not a single person. To get a strong grasp of the difference, think of Jon Stewart delivering his version of the news on Comedy Central’s The Daily Show. If Jon were in the same room as you telling you about what he just read in the paper, that would be a clear case of interpersonal communication and Stewart would be a source. If your friend were to record that conversation on his video camera and his brother were to watch 12 U N D E R S T A N D I N G M A S S M E D I A Ta b l e 1 . 1 Differences in Types of Communication Interpersonal Communication Message Source Encoding Uses all the senses An individual By an individual’s brain Mediated Interpersonal Communication Typically verbal and/or visual An individual By an individual’s brain and technology The air, technology A few or many individuals in the same location By technology and an individual’s brain Immediate or delayed; generally direct Mass Communication Typically verbal and/or visual One or more organizations By an organization and technology The air, technology Typically, many people in different locations By technology and an individual’s brain Immediate or delayed; generally indirect Environmental, mechanical, and semantic, sometimes caused by organizations Channel Receiver The air A few individuals in the same location By an individual’s brain Decoding Feedback Immediate and direct Noise Environmental, mechanical, and semantic Environmental, mechanical, and semantic, with environmental sometimes caused by organizations the video of Jon talking about the news, that is an example of mediated interpersonal communication where Jon is still the source. The difference between these two examples of the source and Jon’s appearance on The Daily Show is that behind Stewart is an organization that is creating the news satire for him to present. Sure, Jon is reading the messages, and so it may seem that he should be called â€Å"the source. † But employees of The Daily Show helped him write his script, produced and edited the videos he introduces, and prepared his set for the broadcast. Moreover, the photos and clips he satirizes sometimes come from news firms, such as ABC News. So Jon is really just the most visible representative of an organizational source. Differences in Transmission The critical role of organizations in mass communication compared to other communication forms also shows up in the transmission of the message. In interpersonal, small group, and public communication, an individual sender or a committee takes responsibility for transmittingthe message—perhaps using microphones when speaking to a crowd or telephones when speaking at a distance. In mass communication, however, transmission is too complex to be accomplished by an indi- Mediated forms of interpersonal, group, organizational, and public communication may use channels similar to those used in mass communication. 13 U N D E R S T A N D I N G T H E N A T U R E O F M A S S M E D I A Jon Stewart, host of The Daily Show, isn’t a oneman band. It takes the entire Comedy Central organization—writers, producers, engineers, stage managers, sound technicians, camera people (to name a few)—to create each evening’s program. Stewart is the most visible representative of the organizational source that creates The Daily Show. vidual or even a few people. That is because transmission involves distributing the material to several locations and presenting the material (that is, exhibiting it) at those locations. Instead of a few individuals, a number of organizations (usually large ones) are typically involved in the process. Think of our Daily Show example again. When Jon reads the script on The Daily Show, his vocal cords transmit the words into a microphone; the air and electric current ar

Solid protein formulation Essay Example

Solid protein formulation Essay Example Solid protein formulation Essay Solid protein formulation Essay Introduction for solid protein preparation ( Essay title 5 ) Background: Solid protein preparation has ever been a challenge due to the deficiency of physical, chemical stablenesss and besides complications involved during protein fabrication and purification. To accomplish an acceptable shelf life, they are normally formulated into a solid signifier. Methods available include freeze drying, spray drying and supercritical fluid drying. However, freezing prohibitionist ( freeze-drying ) is the most normally used method. It can be dated back to 1890s where it was foremost tested and used in Leipzig, Germany ( Franks F A ; Auffret T, 2007 ) . However, it was merely until the fiftiess that freeze-drying had been used in the nutrient and drug industry. Lyophilisation offers several advantages, being an sterile procedure that had been approved by the governments which enhances the shelf life of the merchandise significantly and allows rapid reconstitution of the concluding merchandise prior to utilize ( McNally E.J, 2007 ) . Freeze-drying procedure: Chiefly, freeze-drying involves the remotion of H2O molecules from proteins. Stability was achieved by restricting the motion of protein molecules and avoiding debasement tracts that were facilitated by H2O molecules. Procedure can be separated to three chief stairss, viz. , stop deading, primary drying and secondary drying. During freeze, temperature of protein solution was lowered until below the eutectic temperature ( Teut ) . This temperature by definition was the temperature in a mixture where solution and substance pure solids co-exist at fixed force per unit area. With increasing ice formation, concentration of unfrozen protein solution additions consequently until staying solution becomes excessively syrupy that it finally turns into an formless solid solution resembling a glass. This temperature where preparation vitrifies is known as glass passage temperature ( Tg ) . This glassy web has mechanical stableness which allows it to self-support and does non disintegrate upon the remotion of ice, go forthing behind a porous web that is easy rehydrated. Approximately 98 % of the H2O content was isolated in the signifier of ice ( Franks F A ; Auffret T, 2007 ) . Subsequently, primary drying was preformed to take the ice via sublimation. This was achieved by providing heat to the matrix and procedure relies on the rate of sublimation of ice to chill down the formed merchandise. Conversely with repeated drying, a bed of dried bar signifiers above the ice forepart, offering opposition against sublimation. Rate of sublimation lessenings as a effect. Therefore at this point, if process uses a temperature higher than Tg so changes need to be done to avoid the prostration of matrix construction ( Franks F A ; Auffret T, 2007 ; McNally E.J, 2007 ) . It is necessary to appreciate the opposition by dried bed and stairss must be taken to keep merchandise temperature below Tg ( McNally E.J, 2007 ) . Upon completion, secondary drying was performed to extinguish staying unfrozen H2O within the protein. Removal is done via desorption at a low force per unit area value. As H2O content diminutions, there s an addition in merchandise Tg intending Tg of the merchandise was somewhat higher than Tg initial towards the terminal of the drying procedure. This allows an addition in merchandise temperature for farther desorption. By equilibrating the addition in temperature with rate of drying, desorption of staying H2O without well transcending Tg of merchandise can be achieved. Equally long as the rate of temperature slope does non transcend 5 Â °C/hour, jobs seldom emerge ( McNally E.J, 2007 ) . However, freeze-drying is recognised as an expensive process due to its tremendous energy ingestion and long processing clip ( up to few yearss ) . Hence, economical considerations are of import when sing procedure optimization. This normally means supplying a complete processing rhythm utilizing least sum of clip stoping with an terminal merchandise of acceptable quality. Optimization of freeze-drying procedure Problems were normally encountered during primary drying. Key variables to be monitored were sublimation interface temperature ( turning away of macroscopic construction prostration ) and sublimating interface place ( rating of primary drying advancement ) . These parametric quantities can be determined by both attacks mentioned below. Dynamic Parameters Estimation is an advanced manometric temperature measuring capable of set uping optimum shelf temperature and license quickest drying clip without transcending Tg of merchandise. But it merely provides stray informations ( no uninterrupted measurings ) as an mean appraisal of the province of the system ( Barresia A.A, 2009a ; 2009b ) . Furthermore surveies demonstrates that they must be interpreted with attention when important heterogeneousnesss were present within the batch ( Barresia A.A, 2009a ) . These can be overcome by matching the system with package detectors like Extended Kalman Filter ( EKF ) based perceivers EFK perceivers on the other manus, were able to set up temperature of the merchandise at any axial place and sublimating interface patterned advance, by working a single-point mensural temperature at the underside of the merchandise. It allows uninterrupted monitoring of phials placed at different places which give a direct in-line rating of batch differences. The documentation between appraisal and existent values were by and large good, except during the first portion of drying rhythm. It has been observed that the public presentation of the perceiver can be improved if it is coupled with the DPE tool ( Barresia A.A, 2009b ) . Hence, the two complementary supervising systems can be combined to obtain a robust loanblend control system. Problem in perscpective: Stresses experienced by the protein during freeze-drying However, freeze-drying is non without restrictions. In order for the merchandise to function its intent, proteins would necessitate to remain in its native province to recover its map upon rehydration. However, the procedure itself is capable of bring forthing emphasiss that would take to stop merchandise failure. These emphasiss could be subdivided into three types which are low temperature emphasis, stop deading emphasis and drying emphasis. Low temperature emphasis causes increased hydration of non polar groups and weakening of protein solvophobic interaction. Following hydration, polypeptide ironss which were compactly arranged unfolds to expose internal non-polar groups to H2O. This procedure was enthalphy driven and may explicate some denaturation theoretical account of proteins although the dynamicss may be excessively slow to unfold proteins during freeze-drying ( Privalov PL,1990 ) Cold denatured proteins illustrations were b-lactoglobulin, myoglobin and phosphoglycerate kinase ( Tang XL A ; Pikal M.J, 2005 ) . Then, stop deading procedure itself produces several stableness jobs. First, with increasing solution concentration ionic strength within atoms additions ( Bhatnagarhttp: //informahealthcare.com/entityImage/ ? code=200B? B.S, 2007 ) . This was observed in aluminum hydrated oxide adjuvant incorporating vaccinums where atoms were so tightly packed that ionic strength dominates and collection commences ( Zapata M.I, 1984 ) . Second, surface assimilation of proteins to the ice-water interface formed during stop deading leads to the flowering of native construction. This subsequently exposes amino groups that farther facilitate inactivation via protein collection ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Rapid chilling rhythms generate larger ice H2O interface due to formation of little crystals ( Maltesen M.J, van de Weert M, 2008 ) . It was observed in fibroblast growing factors and maleate dehydragenase. Freezing besides causes pH changes by selectively clear one of the buffering species within protein solut ion. Perturbation occurs owing to increased electrostatic repulsive force between two similar charged groups at high or low pH values ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Pikal et al studies of notably more inactivation and secondary structural disturbance of b-galactosidase in Na phosphate ( NaP ) buffer than in K phosphate buffer. Effect was attributed by pH displacements of about 3 units during stop deading procedure with NaP buffer ( Maltesen M.J, van de Weert M, 2008 ; Pikal-Cleland K.A, 2000 ) . Last, stage separation besides occurs due to altered solubility of excipients at low temperatures. The procedure could give rise to different Tg values as seen with whey proteins and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose co-dried mixtures which exhibits two Tg values in to the full phase-separated system, one Tg value for non-phase-separated co-dried mixture and three Tg values for in between systems ( Jara F.L, Pilosof A.M.R, 2009 ; Randolph TW, 1997 ) . Drying emphasis was caused by partial riddance of the hydration shell which covers the protein surface ensuing in H bonds which played an of import function in the thermodynamic stableness of proteins being removed ( Chang LQ A ; Pikal M.J, 2009 ; Wang W, 2000 ) . During the remotion of H2O molecules, proteins tend to reassign protons to ionized carboxyl groups and abolish as many charge as possible. Equilibrium energies within native verifications were disrupted and favours denaturation. Reduced charge denseness besides promotes protein-protein hydrophobic interaction doing non covalent collection ( Chang LQ, Pikal M.J, 2009 ) . In add-on, H2O molecules may besides function as an indispensable portion of protein active site and remotion of these molecules leads to protein inactivation as seen in muramidases. ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Since, stop deading and desiccation induces different signifiers of emphasis to do protein denaturation. Stabilizers were necessary to protect proteins from stop deading ( cryoprotection ) and desiccation ( lyoprotection ) stresses. However, effectual cryoprotectants may non move as good lyoprotectants hence add-on of two or more stabilizers are necessary in some instances. Dicuss of assorted attacks that might be taken to work out the job Addition of stabilizers: Discriminatory exclusion was proposed as the mechanism for cryoprotection. In the presence of a stabilising agent, protein favors interaction with H2O and excludes stabilizers from its sphere. The exclusion leads to a rise in protein chemical potency and consequence was relative to protein molecule surface country. Subsequently, the system minimises thermodynamically unfavorable consequence of discriminatory exclusion by favoring protein verification with the least surface country. Therefore, native province of proteins was conserved. This consequence besides applies during non-denaturating conditions as proteins constructions do non be in a distinct signifier and fluctuation from most compact verification tends to go on ( Timasheff, S.N. , 1993 ) . Two hypotheses have been proposed as the mechanism for lyoprotection. Water permutation hypothesis was based on thermodynamic stabilisation mechanism. Water-hydrogen bonds are critical in keeping thermodynamic stableness of proteins and stabilizers were able to organize similar H bonds on protein surfaces. Therefore, this acts as a replacement to the H interaction that was lost upon H2O remotion during drying. Therefore, this causes an equilibrium displacement of protein verifications towards the more stable unfolded province. Glass dynamic hypothesis was based strictly on kinetic stabilisation mechanism and scattering of proteins in a stiff, inert formless glassy solid was defined as stableness. Stabilizers acts as inert, good glass formers which provides the stiff matrix and couples the gesture of proteins with matrix construction. Subsequently, thermodynamically goaded debasement was of no concern because the system itself prevents the equilibrium displacement of protein construct ions ( Chang LQ, Pikal M.J, 2009 ) . Further surveies demonstrate that degree of stabilization offered was concentration dependant. Excipients with a concentration sufficient to organize a monolayer around the protein were the least necessary to achieve maximal stabilisation. Therefore, it depends on the mass ratio of excipient to targeted proteins. Further addition in mass ratio provides small benefit in offering excess protection ( YH Liao, 2002 ) . Sugars/polyols are effectual cryoprotectants and lyoprotectants. A concentration of 0.3M was suggested to be the minimal concentration needed to supply stabilisation consequence. This corroborates with consequences obtained from freezed coney musculus lactate dehydrogenase and phopofructokinase. However with increasing concentration, it can really clear and do protein denaturation. Later it was found that disaccharides appeared to be the most effectual among this group of stabilizers ( Carpenter J.F, 1997 ) . However, non all proteins can be stabilised by sugar/polyols. For illustration saccharose had limited consequence in forestalling collection of recombinant hemoglobin in phosphate buffered saline ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Polymers can besides move as both cryoprotectants and lyoprotectants. Mode of action may be due to one or more of the undermentioned belongingss: elevates merchandise Tg value, inhibits crystallization of little bracing agents and increases solution viscousness taking to restricted protein motion ( Wang W, 2000 ) . However, there are restrictions. Polymers might arouse phase separation during stop deading every bit observed on recombinant hemoglobin in phosphate buffer solution incorporating PEG 3350, dextran T500 and NaCl ( Heller, M.C, 1999 ) . In add-on, it may do protein destabilization owing to steric hinderance which limits efficient H adhering with protein as observed in dextran ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Wetting agents on the other manus Acts of the Apostless as a cryoprotectant. It lowers the surface tenseness of protein solution ensuing in decreased inclination of protein surface assimilation. Thus collection leaning declines. It was besides proposed that bracing consequence may besides be attributed by helping protein refolding and binding which hinders proteins of wetting agents offering cryoprotection includes Tween 80 and polyoxyethylene lauryl quintessence ( Wang W, 2000 ) . However, wetting agents were less effectual in protecting against thermally induced denaturation and at higher concentrations of wetting agents may destabilise a supermolecule ( Parkins D.A A ; Lashmar U.T, 2000 ) . As a drumhead, different group of stabilizers offers protection via different mechanism. However, none of them were without restrictions. Considerations need to be done in taking the most appropriate 1s for the preparation. Addition of bulking agents: Bulking agents were used to accomplish physical stableness and to supply a organic structure to keep the active ingredients as active ingredient of a preparation was ever of a really little measure. These were normally used when the active concentration in the fill solution was less than 2 % weight ( McNally E.J, 2007 ) Some illustrations of bulking agents were Osmitrols and dextran. Normally crystalline agents ( Osmitrol ) were preferred because stronger dried bars with better disintegration features were formed when compared to formless agents. As mentioned antecedently, merchandise temperature must be kept below merchandises eutectic temperature and any incorrect appraisal consequences in either structural prostration or prolonged processing clip. High merchandise Tg value was hence favorable as it allows the procedure continuance to be shortened. There are two ways to increase Tg, either by adding a crystalline bulking agent ( Osmitrol ) with high eutectic temperature or an formless bulking agent with high T?g ( dextran ) ( Passot S, 2005 ) . Mannitol crystallisation along with preparations would let the primary drying freeze-drying rhythm to be carried out on a high temperature without major hazard of structural prostration. However on freeze, it may merely clear partly and organize crystallohydrate which restricts the remotion of H2O molecules on secondary drying. Besides, it exists in three different polymorph constructions ( ? , ? , and ? ) and was associated with an increased hazard of vial breakage due to volume enlargement on freeze ( Arakawa T, 2001 ; Wang W, 2000 ) . Dextran on the other manus, in add-on to the advantage mentioned above besides provides lyoprotection and offers bracing consequence upon long term storage. Effect was observed in cut downing loss of coney musculus lactate dehydrogenase activity during freeze-drying and decreased protein collection of interleukin-2 during storage at 5 ?C. However, its inclusion may besides do opposing effects. For case, inclusion of dextran 40 into preparation incorporating sucrose additions collection inclination of lyophilized interleukin-6 when stored at 40 ?C for nine months ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Finally, the pick of bulking agents was governed by principle for usage. For case, it is to be used as a matrix organizing agent or as a stabilizer. A suited pick consequences in optimum merchandise quality with enhanced stableness. Instability jobs during storage/shelf life. Although freeze-drying with the presence of excipients stabilises the protein preparation, long term storage may still give rise to chemical debasement. Formation or exchange of disulfide bonds is the major debasement pathway taking to protein collection as shown in insulin, b-galactoside and bovid serum albumen ( Chang LQ A ; Pikal M.J, 2009 ; Wang W, 2000 ) .Cysteinyl residues in protein are one of the illustrations which were capable of undergoing such reactions. It can be in the signifier of free sulphydryl group or disulphide bonds ; where on long term storage free sulphydryl group undergoes reaction to organize disulphide bonds ( Passot S, 2005 ) Usually oxidization of these reactive side ironss was introduced to change over them into less active disulfide signifiers. Intermolecular disulphide exchange on the other manus was catalyzed by free thiol group formed by b-elimination of an bing disulfide bonds. They contribute to disulphide interchange taking to intermolecular cross links ( Costantino HR, 1994 ) . Deamination besides occurs where hydrolysis of the protein side concatenation outputs a carboxylic group. Both asparagine and glutamine residue groups are susceptible towards this reaction. The rate finding measure involves intramolecular nucleophilic onslaught to organize a reactive cyclic anhydride intermediate or a cyclic imide intermediate ( Chang LQ A ; Pikal M.J, 2009 ) . Explicating at a pH below impersonal pH decreases the advancement of this reaction ( Parkins D.A A ; Lashmar U.T, 2000 ) . Example of protein deaminization includes insulin deaminization via a cyclic anhydride intermediate during storage ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Maillard reaction, besides known as browning reaction consequences from interactions between reduced sugars with basic protein residues such as lysine, arginine, asparagines and glutamine to organize saccharide adducts ( Costantino HR, 1994 ) . Reduced sugars have different responsivenesss depending on the species involved. However although saccharose is a non-reducing sugar, it can easy be reduced to organize two cut downing sugars particularly at low pH values. Hence sucrose preparations are besides susceptible towards browning. This reaction had been observed in human relaxin and interleukin-6 during storage ( Wang W, 2000 ) . PH accommodations, antioxidant use and low temperature were normally adopted to command rate of Maillard reaction ( Chang LQ A ; Pikal M.J, 2009 ) . Oxidation is besides one of the debasement pathways. It involves methionyl residue which contains a sulfur mediety in a thio-ether linkage capable of organizing sulphoxide upon oxidization. Other side ironss like cystine, histidine, and tryptophan were besides possible campaigners. However, reaction relies on local environmental status. In order to change over the O molecule into reactant species like superoxide groups or hydroxyl groups, external assistance is necessary. This may come in the signifier of visible radiation, presence of cut downing agent or transitional metal ions ( Li SH, 1996a ) . Oxidation can be minimised by add-on of sugars ( ethylene ethanediol, glycerin, glucose ) which forms H bonds to the surface of the protein and preserves its native verification ( Li SH, 1996b ) . The reaction had been observed in lyophilized interleukin-2 ( Wang W, 2000 ) . Last, storage temperature besides contributes towards protein stableness. With increasing temperature, there was an increased loss of protein activity. In add-on, it was found to advance protein collection, chemical debasement and facilitate recrystallisation of lyophilized protein. Protein collection was ascribed by an addition mobility of molecules at high temperature. Temperature induced debasement had been observed in interleukin-1 receptor adversary and tumour mortification factor. However, fickle temperatures had more damaging effects than a individual high storage temperature. Hence, storage temperature should be of a changeless low value to understate temperature induced merchandise debasement ( Wang W, 2000 ) . In decision, lyophilised merchandises are really sensitive to debasement. Hence, to bring forth a merchandise of acceptable quality with maintained efficaciousness prior to utilize, we need to ever take notes in ways to understate protein debasement. The aim for this experiment was to look into factors that would impact the stableness of lyophilized protein. Mentions: 1. Arakawa T, Prestrelski S.J, Kenney W.C, Carpenter J.F. Factors impacting short-run and long-run stablenesss of proteins. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews Mar. 2001 ; 46 ( 1-3 ) : 307-326 2. Barresia A.A, Velardia S.A, Pisanoa R, Rasettoa V, Vallanb A, Galanc M. In-line monitoring of the primary drying stage of the freeze-drying procedure in vial by agencies of a Kalman filter based observer. Chemical technology research and design. 2009a ; 87:1409-1419 3. Barresia A.A, Velardia S.A, Pisanoa R, Rasettoa V, Vallanb A, Galanc M. In-line control of the freeze-drying procedure. A soft PAT attack utilizing package detectors. International diary of infrigidation. 2009b ; 32:1003-1014. 4. Bhatnagarhttp: //informahealthcare.com/entityImage/ ? code=200B? B.S, Bognerhttp: //informahealthcare.com/entityImage/ ? code=200B? R.H, Pikal M.Jhttp: //informahealthcare.com/entityImage/ ? code=200B? . Protein Stability During Freezing: Separation of Stresses and Mechanisms of Protein Stabilization. Pharmaceutical Development and Technology. 2007 ; 12 ( 5 ) : 505-523 5. Carpenter J.F, Pikal M.J, Chang B.S, Randolph T.W. Rational Design of Stable Lyophilized Protein Formulations: Some Practical Advice. Pharmaceutical Research. Aug. 1997 ; 14 ( 8 ) : 969 975 6. Chang LQ, Pikal M.J. Mechanisms of protein stabilisation in the solid province. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2009 ; 98 ( 9 ) : 2886-2908. 7. Costantino HR, Langer R, Klibanov AM. Moisture-induced collection of lyophilised insulin. Pharm Research. 1994 ; 11 ( 1 ) :21-29. 8. Franks F, Auffret T. Freeze-drying of Pharmaceuticals and Biopharmaceuticals. Principles and Practice. Cambridge. The Royal Society of Chemistry. 2007. p.4, 10, 134-140, 173 9. Heller, M.C. , Carpenter, J.F. , Randolph, T.W. Protein preparation and freeze-drying rhythm design: bar of harm due to freeze-concentration induced stage separation. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 1999 ; 63: 166-174. 10. Jara F.L, Pilosof A.M.R. Glass passage temperature of protein polysaccharide co-dried mixtures as affected by the extent and morphology of stage separation. Thermochimica Acta. Apr. 2009 ; 487 ( 1-2 ) : 65-73 11. Liao YH, Brown MB, Quader A, Martin GP. Protective Mechanism of Stabilizing Excipients against Dehydration in the Freeze Drying of Proteins. Pharmaceutical Research. Dec. 2002 ; 19 ( 12 ) : 1854 1861. 12. Li SH, Patapoff TW, Overcashier D, Hsu C, Nguyen TH, Borchardt RT. Effectss of cut downing sugars on the chemical stableness of human relaxin in the lyophilised province. J Pharm Sci. 1996a ; 85 ( 8 ) :873-877. 13. Li SH, Patapoff TW, Nguyen TH, Borchardt RT. Inhibitory consequence of sugars and polyols on the metal-catalyzed oxidization of human relaxin. J Pharm Sci 1996b ; 85 ( 8 ) :868-872. 14. Maltesen M.J, van de Weert M. Drying methods for protein pharmaceuticals. Drug Discov Today: Technol 2008 ; e1 e7 15. McNally E.J, Hastedt E.J, Swarbrick J. Protein Formulation and Delivery. 2nd edition. NY. Informa Healthcare USA, Inc. 2007. p. 177 212 16. Passot S, Fonseca F, Alarcon-Lorca M, Rolland D, Marin M. Physical word picture of preparations for the development of two stable lyophilized proteins during both dried and liquid storage. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics. Aug. 2005 ; 60 ( 3 ) : 335-348 17. Parkins D.A, Lashmar U.T. The preparation of biopharmaceutical merchandises Pharmaceutical Science A ; Technology Today. Apr. 2000 ; 3 ( 4 ) : 129-137 18. Pikal-Cleland K.A, Nair Rodriguez-Hornedo, Amidon G. L, Carpenter J.F. 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Social work Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Social work - Assignment Example From the first chapter, I was able to understand why it is important to study human behavior theories. According to Robins et al, a theory is an idea that has to be backed by certain evidence or proof (3). Human behavior theories are therefore ideas or propositions which try to explain why humans behave the way they do. These theories are backed by evidence that have been observed and documented over the years (4). The reason why we study human behavior theories is to be able to understand human behavior. According to Robbins et al the human behavior is a complex phenomenon (7). This is basically people are different. When the behavior of people is studied and documented in the form of theories, it is possible to understand why a person behaves the way he or she does in the society.. Without the theories, analyzing, and understand how people behave is quite difficult. From the first chapter, I was also able to appreciate the concept of social construction of theories (13). The social construction of theories is basically concerned with the development of a constructed understanding of the world (14). In the social development of these human development theories, the meaning of these theories is not developed separately within the individual but rather in synchronization with other human beings (16). From the first chapter, I was able to appreciate the various aspects that are important in developing and understanding these human behavior theories. Various ideologies, scientifically developed theories as well as social work practices form the basis of understanding the human behavior. It is however worth noting that despite the importance of the social construction of the theories, it is greatly affected by determinism nod reductionism (19). Reductionism refers to the practice of reducing the human behavior all down to a single factor such as biological cognitive or behavioral